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*[[Dihydropyridines]] are [[calcium channel blocker]]s that are sometimes used to treat [[hypertension|high blood pressure]]. At least one clinical study suggested that [[Nifedipine]], one of the dihydropyridines, may reduce mast cell degranulation in patients that exhibit [[urticaria pigmentosa]]. A 1984 study by Fairly et al. included a patient with symptomatic urticaria pigmentosa who responded to nifedipine at dose of 10 mg po tid.<ref>Fairley JA, et al: Urticaria pigmentosa responsive to nifedipine. J Am Acad Dermatol 11:740-743, 1984.</ref> However, Nifetipine has never been approved by the FDA for treatment of mastocytosis.
*[[Dihydropyridines]] are [[calcium channel blocker]]s that are sometimes used to treat [[hypertension|high blood pressure]]. At least one clinical study suggested that [[Nifedipine]], one of the dihydropyridines, may reduce mast cell degranulation in patients that exhibit [[urticaria pigmentosa]]. A 1984 study by Fairly et al. included a patient with symptomatic urticaria pigmentosa who responded to nifedipine at dose of 10 mg po tid.<ref>Fairley JA, et al: Urticaria pigmentosa responsive to nifedipine. J Am Acad Dermatol 11:740-743, 1984.</ref> However, Nifetipine has never been approved by the FDA for treatment of mastocytosis.
* In the surgical setting it is recommended to avoid beta-blockers as they interfere with endogenous epinephrine and may precipitate anaphylaxis.  It is also recommended to avoid alpha-blockers as well as anti-cholinergics. 


In rare cases in which mastocytosis is cancerous or associated with a blood disorder, the patient may have to use [[steroid]]s and/or [[chemotherapy]]. The novel agent [[imatinib]] (Glivec® or Gleevec®) has been found to be effective in certain types of mastocytosis.<ref>Droogendijk HJ, Kluin-Nelemans HJ, van Doormaal JJ, Oranje AP, van de Loosdrecht AA, van Daele PL. Imatinib mesylate in the treatment of systemic mastocytosis: a phase II trial.  Cancer. 2006 Jul 15;107(2):345-51. PMID 16779792</ref>
In rare cases in which mastocytosis is cancerous or associated with a blood disorder, the patient may have to use [[steroid]]s and/or [[chemotherapy]]. The novel agent [[imatinib]] (Glivec® or Gleevec®) has been found to be effective in certain types of mastocytosis.<ref>Droogendijk HJ, Kluin-Nelemans HJ, van Doormaal JJ, Oranje AP, van de Loosdrecht AA, van Daele PL. Imatinib mesylate in the treatment of systemic mastocytosis: a phase II trial.  Cancer. 2006 Jul 15;107(2):345-51. PMID 16779792</ref>

Revision as of 02:31, 19 February 2011

Mastocytosis
Skin: Cutaneous Mastocytosis; childhood form (A), there is a tumoral dermal infiltrate devoid of epidermotropism and composed of bland cells with conspicuous cell boundaries and uniform, round, centrally located nuclei (B). Confirmatory cytoplasmic granules are only apparent with metachromatic stains, such as this Giemsa stain (C), or by upon ultrastructural examination (D). C, X1000. D, X65,000.
Image courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission © PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology
ICD-10 Q82.2, C96.2
ICD-9 757.33, 202.6
ICD-O: 9741/3
OMIM 154800
DiseasesDB 7864
eMedicine derm/258  med/1401
MeSH D008415

Template:Search infobox Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

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Overview

Mastocytosis is a group of rare disorders of both children and adults caused by the presence of too many mast cells (mastocytes) and CD34+ mast cell precursors in a person's body.[1] [2] [3] [4]

Epidemiology

No one is sure how many people have either type of mastocytosis, but mastocytosis generally has been considered to be an "orphan disease" (orphan diseases affect 200,000 or fewer people in the United States). Mastocytosis, however, often may be misdiagnosed, and occur more frequently than assumed.

Pathophysiology

Mast cells are located in connective tissue, including the skin, the linings of the stomach and intestine, and other sites. They play an important role in helping defend these tissues from disease. By releasing chemical "alarms" such as histamine, mast cells attract other key players of the immune defense system to areas of the body where they are needed.

Mast cells seem to have other roles as well. Because they gather together around wounds, mast cells may play a part in wound healing. For example, the typical itching felt around a healing scab may be caused by histamine released by mast cells. Researchers also think mast cells may have a role in the growth of blood vessels (angiogenesis). No one with too few or no mast cells has been found, which indicates to some scientists that we may not be able to survive with too few mast cells.

Mast cells express a cell surface receptor termed c-kit[5] (CD117), which is the receptor for scf (stem cell factor). In laboratory studies, scf appears to be important for the proliferation of mast cells, and inhibiting the tyrosine kinase receptor with imatinib (see below) may reduce the symptoms of mastocytosis. C-kit mutations (D816V & D816H) are the most common mutations found (80-95%) in mastocytosis. The D816V mutation is located in the catalytic domain of the tyrosine kinase receptor c-Kit occuring in systemic mastocytosis. C-Kit is the receptor for stem cell factor, a key cytokine involved in the generation and differentiation of mast cells from its progenitors; it is encoded by kit, located at 4q12. The presence of the Kit-D816V mutation denotes resistance to imatinib.

History

Scientists first described urticaria pigmentosa in 1869.[6] Systemic mastocytosis was first reported by scientists in 1936.[7]

Classification

The presence of too many mast cells, or mastocytosis, can occur in a variety of forms.

  • Most cases are cutaneous (confined to the skin only). There are several forms of cutaneous mastocytosis. The most common is called urticaria pigmentosa (UP). It mostly affects children. Telangiectasia Macularis Eruptiva Perstans (TMEP) is a much rarer form of cutaneous mastocytosis that affects adults.[8]
  • Systemic mastocytosis involves the internal organs, usually in addition to involving the skin. Mast cells collect in various tissues and can affect organs such as the liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow.

Symptoms

In some rare cases chemicals released by mast cells cause changes in the immune system leading to typical allergy symptoms such as:

  • Itching; pruritis, may also have flushing.
  • Abdominal cramping; diarrhea, multiple peptic ulcerations.
  • Anaphylaxis (shock from allergic or immune causes); manifest with wheezing and dyspnea.

When too many mast cells exist in a person's body, the additional chemicals can cause:

Diagnosis

Can be diagnose urticaria pigmentosa (cutaneous mastocytosis, see below) by seeing the characteristic lesions that are dark-brown and fixed. A small skin sample (biopsy) may help confirm the diagnosis.

By taking a biopsy from a different organ, such as the bone marrow, the doctor can diagnose systemic mastocytosis. Using special techniques on a bone marrow sample, the doctor looks for an increase in mast cells. The bone marrow may show disordered bone formation and bizzare mast cells.

Serum levels of tryptase are high and are a useful marker, however, the serum tryptase of cutaneous mastocytosis is normal. Urinary tryptase is also increased.

WHO Diagnostic Criteria; to make the diagnosis have 1 Major and 1 Minor criteria or at least 3 minor ones. Major Criteria; Mutlifocal dense infiltrates of mast cells in the bone marrow or other extracutaneous organ(s) (>15 mast cells in aggregate). Minor Criteria; 1) Mast cells in the bone marrow or other extracutaneous organ(s) show an abnormal morphology (>25% of cells). 2) C-kit mutation at codon 816 is found. 3) Mast cells in the bone marrow express CD2 and/or CD25. 4) Serum total tryptase >20 ng/ml.

Treatment

There is currently no cure for mastocytosis. The treatment is palliative and there are a number of medicines to help treat the symptoms of mastocytosis:

  • Antihistamines block receptors targeted by histamine released from mast cells. Both H1 and H2 blockers may be helpful.
  • Leukotriene antagonists block receptors targeted by leukotrienes released from mast cells.
  • Mast cell stabilizers help prevent mast cells from releasing their chemical contents. Cromolyn Sodium Oral Solution (Gastrocrom® / Cromoglicate) is the only medicine specifically approved by the U.S. FDA for the treatment of mastocytosis. Ketotifen is available in Canada and Europe, but is only available in the U.S. as ophthamic drops (Zaditor®).
  • Proton pump inhibitors help reduce production of gastric acid, which is often increased in patients with mastocytosis. Excess gastric acid can harm the stomach, esophagus, and small intestine.
  • Epinephrine constricts blood vessels and opens airways to maintain adequate circulation and ventilation when excessive mast cell degranulation has caused anaphylaxis.
  • Albuterol and other beta-2 agonists open airways that can constrict in the presence of histamine.
  • Corticosteroids can be used topically, inhaled, or systemically to reduce inflammation associated with mastocytosis.
  • Antidepressants are an important and often overlooked tool in the treatment of mastocytosis. The stress and physical discomfort of any chronic disease may increase the likelihood of a patient developing depression. Depression and other neurological symptoms have been noted in mastocytosis.[9] Some antidepressants such as doxepin are themselves potent antihistamines and can help relieve physical as well as cognitive symptoms.
  • Dihydropyridines are calcium channel blockers that are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure. At least one clinical study suggested that Nifedipine, one of the dihydropyridines, may reduce mast cell degranulation in patients that exhibit urticaria pigmentosa. A 1984 study by Fairly et al. included a patient with symptomatic urticaria pigmentosa who responded to nifedipine at dose of 10 mg po tid.[10] However, Nifetipine has never been approved by the FDA for treatment of mastocytosis.
  • In the surgical setting it is recommended to avoid beta-blockers as they interfere with endogenous epinephrine and may precipitate anaphylaxis. It is also recommended to avoid alpha-blockers as well as anti-cholinergics.

In rare cases in which mastocytosis is cancerous or associated with a blood disorder, the patient may have to use steroids and/or chemotherapy. The novel agent imatinib (Glivec® or Gleevec®) has been found to be effective in certain types of mastocytosis.[11] Recent literature shows that C-Kit (D816V) lends some resistance to imatinib and sorafenib but these cells are still sensitive to Nilotinib, Dasatinib and Rapamycin. Cladribine and Interferon have also been found to be effective.

There are clinical trials currently underway testing stem cell transplants as a form of treatment.

There are support groups for persons suffering from mastocytosis. Involvement can be emotionally therapeutic for some patients.

Research

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) scientists have been studying and treating patients with mastocytosis for several years at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Clinical Center.

Some of the most important research advances for this rare disorder include improved diagnosis of mast cell disease and identification of growth factors and genetic mechanisms responsible for increased mast cell production. Researchers are currently evaluating approaches to improve ways to treat mastocytosis.

Scientists also are focusing on identifying disease-associated mutations (changes in genes). NIH scientists have identified some mutations, which may help researchers understand the causes of mastocytosis, improve diagnosis, and develop better treatments.

References

  1. ↑ Horny HP, Sotlar K, Valent P (2007). "Mastocytosis: state of the art". Pathobiology. 74 (2): 121–32. doi:10.1159/000101711. PMID 17587883.
  2. ↑ The Disease Database
  3. ↑ Kahan, Scott, Smith, Ellen G. In A Page: Signs and Symptoms. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2004:3
  4. ↑ Sailer, Christian, Wasner, Susanne. Differential Diagnosis Pocket. Hermosa Beach, CA: Borm Bruckmeir Publishing LLC, 2002:7
  5. ↑ Orfao A, Garcia-Montero AC, Sanchez L, Escribano L (2007). "Recent advances in the understanding of mastocytosis: the role of KIT mutations". Br. J. Haematol. 138 (1): 12–30. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2007.06619.x. PMID 17555444.
  6. ↑ Nettleship E, Tay W. Rare forms of urticaria. Br Med J. 1869;2:323.
  7. ↑ Sézary, A, Levy-Coblentz, G, Chauvillon, P: Dermographisme et mastocytose. Bull Soc Fr Dermatol Syphilol 1936;43:359–61.
  8. ↑ Ellis DL. Treatment of telangiectasia macularis eruptiva perstans with the 585-nm flashlamp-pumped dye laser. Dermatol Surg 1996;22:33-7. PMID 8556255.
  9. ↑ Rogers MP, Bloomingdale K, Murawski BJ, Soter NA, Reich P, Austen KF. Mixed organic brain syndrome as a manifestation of systemic mastocytosis. Psychosom Med 1986;48:437-47. PMID 3749421
  10. ↑ Fairley JA, et al: Urticaria pigmentosa responsive to nifedipine. J Am Acad Dermatol 11:740-743, 1984.
  11. ↑ Droogendijk HJ, Kluin-Nelemans HJ, van Doormaal JJ, Oranje AP, van de Loosdrecht AA, van Daele PL. Imatinib mesylate in the treatment of systemic mastocytosis: a phase II trial. Cancer. 2006 Jul 15;107(2):345-51. PMID 16779792

Additional Resources

  • Based on an informative page by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID).
  • Shah NP, Lee FJ, Luo R, Jiang Y, Donker M, Akin C. Dasatinib (BMS-354825) inhibits KIT(D816V), an imatinib-resistant activating mutation that triggers neoplastic growth in most patients with systemic mastocytosis. Blood. 2006; 108(1):286-291. PMID 16434489.
  • Pardanani A, Teffer A. Systemic mastocytosis in adults: a review on prognosis and treatment based on 342 Mayo Clinic patients and current literature. Current Opinion in Hematology. 2010; 17(2): 125-132. PMID 20075725.

External links

Acknowledgements

The content on this page was first contributed by: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D.

List of contributors:

Suggested Reading and Key General References

Suggested Links and Web Resources

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