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'''Malaria''' is a [[Vector (biology)|vector]]-borne [[infectious disease]] caused by [[protozoan]] [[parasite]]s. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, it causes disease in approximately 650 million people and kills between one and three million, most of them young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty, but is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development. | '''Malaria''' is a [[Vector (biology)|vector]]-borne [[infectious disease]] caused by [[protozoan]] [[parasite]]s. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, it causes disease in approximately 650 million people and kills between one and three million, most of them young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty, but is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development. | ||
==Historical perspective== | ==Historical perspective== | ||
{{further|[[Jesuit's bark]]}} | {{further|[[Jesuit's bark]]}} | ||
Malaria has infected humans for over 50,000 years, and may have been a human [[pathogen]] for the entire history of our species.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Joy D, Feng X, Mu J, ''et al'' | title = Early origin and recent expansion of Plasmodium falciparum. | journal = Science | volume = 300 | issue = 5617 | pages = 318-21 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12690197}}</ref> Indeed, close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees, our closest relatives.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Escalante A, Freeland D, Collins W, Lal A | title = The evolution of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding cytochrome b from the linear mitochondrial genome. | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/14/8124 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 95 | issue = 14 | pages = 8124-9 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9653151}}</ref> References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout recorded history, beginning in 2700 BC in China.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Cox F | title = History of human parasitology. | url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=12364371 | journal = Clin Microbiol Rev | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 595-612 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12364371}}</ref> The term malaria originates from Medieval [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''mala aria'' — "[[miasma theory of disease|bad air]]"; and the disease was formerly called '''ague''' or '''marsh fever''' due to its association with swamps. | Malaria has infected humans for over 50,000 years, and may have been a human [[pathogen]] for the entire history of our species.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Joy D, Feng X, Mu J, ''et al'' | title = Early origin and recent expansion of Plasmodium falciparum. | journal = Science | volume = 300 | issue = 5617 | pages = 318-21 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12690197}}</ref> Indeed, close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees, our closest relatives.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Escalante A, Freeland D, Collins W, Lal A | title = The evolution of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding cytochrome b from the linear mitochondrial genome. | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/14/8124 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 95 | issue = 14 | pages = 8124-9 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9653151}}</ref> References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout recorded history, beginning in 2700 BC in China.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Cox F | title = History of human parasitology. | url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=12364371 | journal = Clin Microbiol Rev | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 595-612 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12364371}}</ref> The term malaria originates from Medieval [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''mala aria'' — "[[miasma theory of disease|bad air]]"; and the disease was formerly called '''ague''' or '''marsh fever''' due to its association with swamps. | ||
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Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when a French army doctor working in Algeria named [[Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran]] observed parasites inside the [[red blood cell]]s of people suffering from malaria. He therefore proposed that malaria was caused by this [[protozoa]]n, the first time protozoa were identified as causing disease.<ref>{{cite web | title = Biography of Alphonse Laveran | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1907/laveran-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}} ] Nobel foundation. Accessed 25 Oct 2006</ref> For this and later discoveries, he was awarded the 1907 [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]]. The protozoan was called ''Plasmodium'' by the Italian scientists Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ettore Marchiafava| work = | url = http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2478.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> A year later, Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor treating patients with [[yellow fever]] in Havana, first suggested that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans. However, it was Britain's Sir Ronald Ross working in India who finally proved in 1898 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He did this by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds and isolating malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.<ref>{{cite web | title = Biography of Ronald Ross | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1902/ross-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> For this work Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly-established [[Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]] and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites| work = CDC Malaria website | url = http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/ross.htm | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900, and its recommendations implemented by William C. Gorgas in [[Health measures during the construction of the Panama Canal|the health measures undertaken]] during construction of the Panama Canal. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against this disease. | Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when a French army doctor working in Algeria named [[Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran]] observed parasites inside the [[red blood cell]]s of people suffering from malaria. He therefore proposed that malaria was caused by this [[protozoa]]n, the first time protozoa were identified as causing disease.<ref>{{cite web | title = Biography of Alphonse Laveran | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1907/laveran-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}} ] Nobel foundation. Accessed 25 Oct 2006</ref> For this and later discoveries, he was awarded the 1907 [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]]. The protozoan was called ''Plasmodium'' by the Italian scientists Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ettore Marchiafava| work = | url = http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2478.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> A year later, Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor treating patients with [[yellow fever]] in Havana, first suggested that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans. However, it was Britain's Sir Ronald Ross working in India who finally proved in 1898 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He did this by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds and isolating malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.<ref>{{cite web | title = Biography of Ronald Ross | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1902/ross-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> For this work Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly-established [[Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]] and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites| work = CDC Malaria website | url = http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/ross.htm | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900, and its recommendations implemented by William C. Gorgas in [[Health measures during the construction of the Panama Canal|the health measures undertaken]] during construction of the Panama Canal. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against this disease. | ||
Revision as of 14:08, 12 June 2012
Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, it causes disease in approximately 650 million people and kills between one and three million, most of them young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty, but is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development.
Historical perspective
Malaria has infected humans for over 50,000 years, and may have been a human pathogen for the entire history of our species.[1] Indeed, close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees, our closest relatives.[2] References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout recorded history, beginning in 2700 BC in China.[3] The term malaria originates from Medieval Italian: mala aria — "bad air"; and the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps.
Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when a French army doctor working in Algeria named Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran observed parasites inside the red blood cells of people suffering from malaria. He therefore proposed that malaria was caused by this protozoan, the first time protozoa were identified as causing disease.[4] For this and later discoveries, he was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. The protozoan was called Plasmodium by the Italian scientists Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli.[5] A year later, Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor treating patients with yellow fever in Havana, first suggested that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans. However, it was Britain's Sir Ronald Ross working in India who finally proved in 1898 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He did this by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds and isolating malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.[6] For this work Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly-established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius.[7] The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900, and its recommendations implemented by William C. Gorgas in the health measures undertaken during construction of the Panama Canal. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against this disease.
The first effective treatment for malaria was the bark of cinchona tree, which contains quinine. This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes, mainly in Peru. This natural product was used by the inhabitants of Peru to control malaria, and the Jesuits introduced this practice to Europe during the 1640s where it was rapidly accepted.[8] However, it was not until 1820 that the active ingredient quinine was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by the French chemists Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Jean Bienaime Caventou.[9]
In the early twentieth century, before antibiotics, patients with syphilis were intentionally infected with malaria to create a fever, following the work of Julius Wagner-Jauregg. By accurately controlling the fever with quinine, the effects of both syphilis and malaria could be minimized. Although some patients died from malaria, this was preferable than the almost-certain death from syphilis.[10]
Although the blood stage and mosquito stages of the malaria life cycle were established in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was not until the 1980s that the latent liver form of the parasite was observed.[11][12] The discovery of this latent form of the parasite finally explained why people could appear to be cured of malaria but still relapse years after the parasite had disappeared from their bloodstreams.
References
- ↑ Joy D, Feng X, Mu J; et al. (2003). "Early origin and recent expansion of Plasmodium falciparum". Science. 300 (5617): 318–21. PMID 12690197.
- ↑ Escalante A, Freeland D, Collins W, Lal A (1998). "The evolution of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding cytochrome b from the linear mitochondrial genome". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 95 (14): 8124–9. PMID 9653151.
- ↑ Cox F (2002). "History of human parasitology". Clin Microbiol Rev. 15 (4): 595–612. PMID 12364371.
- ↑ "Biography of Alphonse Laveran". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-06-15. ] Nobel foundation. Accessed 25 Oct 2006
- ↑ "Ettore Marchiafava". Retrieved 2007-06-15.
- ↑ "Biography of Ronald Ross". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
- ↑ "Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites". CDC Malaria website. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
- ↑ Kaufman T, Rúveda E (2005). "The quest for quinine: those who won the battles and those who won the war". Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 44 (6): 854–85. PMID 15669029.
- ↑ Kyle R, Shampe M (1974). "Discoverers of quinine". JAMA. 229 (4): 462. PMID 4600403.
- ↑ Raju T (2006). "Hot brains: manipulating body heat to save the brain". Pediatrics. 117 (2): e320–1. PMID 16452338.
- ↑ Krotoski W, Collins W, Bray R; et al. (1982). "Demonstration of hypnozoites in sporozoite-transmitted Plasmodium vivax infection". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 31 (6): 1291–3. PMID 6816080.
- ↑ Meis J, Verhave J, Jap P, Sinden R, Meuwissen J (1983). "Malaria parasites--discovery of the early liver form". Nature. 302 (5907): 424–6. PMID 6339945.