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==Overview==
==Overview==
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) is a non-invasive test that is useful in the evaluation of overall coronary anatomy and function. CMRI also helps in the identification of inflammation <ref name="pmid11157694">Ruehm SG, Corot C, Vogt P, Kolb S, Debatin JF (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11157694 Magnetic resonance imaging of atherosclerotic plaque with ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in hyperlipidemic rabbits.] ''Circulation'' 103 (3):415-22. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11157694 11157694]</ref>, neovascularization <ref name="pmid12591755">Kerwin W, Hooker A, Spilker M, Vicini P, Ferguson M, Hatsukami T et al. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12591755 Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging analysis of neovasculature volume in carotid atherosclerotic plaque.] ''Circulation'' 107 (6):851-6. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12591755 12591755]</ref> and fibrous cap,<ref name="pmid11997569">Wasserman BA, Smith WI, Trout HH, Cannon RO, Balaban RS, Arai AE (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11997569 Carotid artery atherosclerosis: in vivo morphologic characterization with gadolinium-enhanced double-oblique MR imaging initial results.] ''Radiology'' 223 (2):566-73. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11997569 11997569]</ref> It, therefore, holds the potential for '''plaque characterization'''.
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) is a non-invasive test that is useful in the evaluation of overall coronary anatomy and function. CMRI also helps in the identification of inflammation <ref name="pmid11157694">Ruehm SG, Corot C, Vogt P, Kolb S, Debatin JF (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11157694 Magnetic resonance imaging of atherosclerotic plaque with ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in hyperlipidemic rabbits.] ''Circulation'' 103 (3):415-22. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11157694 11157694]</ref>, neovascularization <ref name="pmid12591755">Kerwin W, Hooker A, Spilker M, Vicini P, Ferguson M, Hatsukami T et al. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12591755 Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging analysis of neovasculature volume in carotid atherosclerotic plaque.] ''Circulation'' 107 (6):851-6. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12591755 12591755]</ref> and fibrous cap,<ref name="pmid11997569">Wasserman BA, Smith WI, Trout HH, Cannon RO, Balaban RS, Arai AE (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11997569 Carotid artery atherosclerosis: in vivo morphologic characterization with gadolinium-enhanced double-oblique MR imaging initial results.] ''Radiology'' 223 (2):566-73. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11997569 11997569]</ref> It, therefore, holds the potential for plaque characterization.


==Indications for CMR based on Consensus Panel report <ref name="pmid15522474">Pennell DJ, Sechtem UP, Higgins CB, Manning WJ, Pohost GM, Rademakers FE et al. (2004) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15522474 Clinical indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR): Consensus Panel report.] ''Eur Heart J'' 25 (21):1940-65. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.040 DOI:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.040] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/15522474 15522474]</ref>==
==Indications for CMR based on Consensus Panel report <ref name="pmid15522474">Pennell DJ, Sechtem UP, Higgins CB, Manning WJ, Pohost GM, Rademakers FE et al. (2004) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15522474 Clinical indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR): Consensus Panel report.] ''Eur Heart J'' 25 (21):1940-65. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.040 DOI:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.040] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/15522474 15522474]</ref>==
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==Detection of CAD using CMRI==
==Detection of CAD using CMRI==
*'''Early detection''' of [[atherosclerosis]] and endothelial dysfunction using CMRI is possible with arterial wall imaging and assessing the reactivity of brachial artery.
*Early detection of [[atherosclerosis]] and endothelial dysfunction using CMRI is possible with arterial wall imaging and assessing the reactivity of brachial artery.
:*CMRI can be used to image arteries outside the heart <ref name="pmid12221054">Cai JM, Hatsukami TS, Ferguson MS, Small R, Polissar NL, Yuan C (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12221054 Classification of human carotid atherosclerotic lesions with in vivo multicontrast magnetic resonance imaging.] ''Circulation'' 106 (11):1368-73. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12221054 12221054]</ref> which are affected long before the clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis <ref name="pmid3574413">Glagov S, Weisenberg E, Zarins CK, Stankunavicius R, Kolettis GJ (1987) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3574413 Compensatory enlargement of human atherosclerotic coronary arteries.] ''N Engl J Med'' 316 (22):1371-5. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198705283162204 DOI:10.1056/NEJM198705283162204] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/3574413 3574413]</ref>.  
:*CMRI can be used to image arteries outside the heart <ref name="pmid12221054">Cai JM, Hatsukami TS, Ferguson MS, Small R, Polissar NL, Yuan C (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12221054 Classification of human carotid atherosclerotic lesions with in vivo multicontrast magnetic resonance imaging.] ''Circulation'' 106 (11):1368-73. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12221054 12221054]</ref> which are affected long before the clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis <ref name="pmid3574413">Glagov S, Weisenberg E, Zarins CK, Stankunavicius R, Kolettis GJ (1987) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3574413 Compensatory enlargement of human atherosclerotic coronary arteries.] ''N Engl J Med'' 316 (22):1371-5. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198705283162204 DOI:10.1056/NEJM198705283162204] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/3574413 3574413]</ref>.  
:*Direct endothelial function can be measured non-invasively using stimuli that causes flow mediated arterial vasodilatation <ref name="pmid1359209">Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, Spiegelhalter DJ, Miller OI, Sullivan ID et al. (1992) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1359209 Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis.] ''Lancet'' 340 (8828):1111-5. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1359209 1359209]</ref>. CMRI measures flow changes in response to stimuli in addition to measuring brachial dilation <ref name="pmid11738285">Silber HA, Bluemke DA, Ouyang P, Du YP, Post WS, Lima JA (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11738285 The relationship between vascular wall shear stress and flow-mediated dilation: endothelial function assessed by phase-contrast magnetic resonance angiography.] ''J Am Coll Cardiol'' 38 (7):1859-65. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11738285 11738285]</ref>.  
:*Direct endothelial function can be measured non-invasively using stimuli that causes flow mediated arterial vasodilatation <ref name="pmid1359209">Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, Spiegelhalter DJ, Miller OI, Sullivan ID et al. (1992) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1359209 Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis.] ''Lancet'' 340 (8828):1111-5. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/1359209 1359209]</ref>. CMRI measures flow changes in response to stimuli in addition to measuring brachial dilation <ref name="pmid11738285">Silber HA, Bluemke DA, Ouyang P, Du YP, Post WS, Lima JA (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11738285 The relationship between vascular wall shear stress and flow-mediated dilation: endothelial function assessed by phase-contrast magnetic resonance angiography.] ''J Am Coll Cardiol'' 38 (7):1859-65. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11738285 11738285]</ref>.  
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*Alternative approaches include:
*Alternative approaches include:
:*Visualization of the effects of induced [[ischemia]] (wall motion, perfusion)
:*Visualization of the effects of induced [[ischemia]] (wall motion, perfusion)
::*'''Stress wall motion abnormalities:''' In patients with [[CAD]], dobutamine stress CMR is helpful to identify ischemia-induced wall motion abnormalities <ref name="pmid11816623">Nagel E, Lorenz C, Baer F, Hundley WG, Wilke N, Neubauer S et al. (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11816623 Stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance: consensus panel report.] ''J Cardiovasc Magn Reson'' 3 (3):267-81. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11816623 11816623]</ref> and is considered effective is patients who are unsuitable for dobutamine echocardiography <ref name="pmid10525488">Hundley WG, Hamilton CA, Thomas MS, Herrington DM, Salido TB, Kitzman DW et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10525488 Utility of fast cine magnetic resonance imaging and display for the detection of myocardial ischemia in patients not well suited for second harmonic stress echocardiography.] ''Circulation'' 100 (16):1697-702. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10525488 10525488]</ref>.  
::*Stress wall motion abnormalities: In patients with [[CAD]], dobutamine stress CMR is helpful to identify ischemia-induced wall motion abnormalities <ref name="pmid11816623">Nagel E, Lorenz C, Baer F, Hundley WG, Wilke N, Neubauer S et al. (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11816623 Stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance: consensus panel report.] ''J Cardiovasc Magn Reson'' 3 (3):267-81. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11816623 11816623]</ref> and is considered effective is patients who are unsuitable for dobutamine echocardiography <ref name="pmid10525488">Hundley WG, Hamilton CA, Thomas MS, Herrington DM, Salido TB, Kitzman DW et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10525488 Utility of fast cine magnetic resonance imaging and display for the detection of myocardial ischemia in patients not well suited for second harmonic stress echocardiography.] ''Circulation'' 100 (16):1697-702. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10525488 10525488]</ref>.  


::*'''Myocardial perfusion:''' In patients with [[CAD]], CMR showed improvement in myocardial perfusion after coronary angioplasty <ref name="pmid11079658">Al-Saadi N, Nagel E, Gross M, Schnackenburg B, Paetsch I, Klein C et al. (2000) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11079658 Improvement of myocardial perfusion reserve early after coronary intervention: assessment with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.] ''J Am Coll Cardiol'' 36 (5):1557-64. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11079658 11079658]</ref> and in patients with [[Syndrome X|cadiac syndrome X]] impaired sub-endocardial perfusion was observed <ref name="pmid12075055">Panting JR, Gatehouse PD, Yang GZ, Grothues F, Firmin DN, Collins P et al. (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12075055 Abnormal subendocardial perfusion in cardiac syndrome X detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging.] ''N Engl J Med'' 346 (25):1948-53. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa012369 DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa012369] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12075055 12075055]</ref>.  
::*Myocardial perfusion: In patients with [[CAD]], CMR showed improvement in myocardial perfusion after coronary angioplasty <ref name="pmid11079658">Al-Saadi N, Nagel E, Gross M, Schnackenburg B, Paetsch I, Klein C et al. (2000) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11079658 Improvement of myocardial perfusion reserve early after coronary intervention: assessment with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.] ''J Am Coll Cardiol'' 36 (5):1557-64. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11079658 11079658]</ref> and in patients with [[Syndrome X|cadiac syndrome X]] impaired sub-endocardial perfusion was observed <ref name="pmid12075055">Panting JR, Gatehouse PD, Yang GZ, Grothues F, Firmin DN, Collins P et al. (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12075055 Abnormal subendocardial perfusion in cardiac syndrome X detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging.] ''N Engl J Med'' 346 (25):1948-53. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa012369 DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa012369] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12075055 12075055]</ref>.  


:*Direct visualization of coronary arteries (coronary angiography and flow)
:*Direct visualization of coronary arteries (coronary angiography and flow)
::*'''Coronary angiography and coronary flow evaluation:''' Coronary flow reserve is useful in the identification of LAD stenosis <ref name="pmid10385498">Hundley WG, Hamilton CA, Clarke GD, Hillis LD, Herrington DM, Lange RA et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10385498 Visualization and functional assessment of proximal and middle left anterior descending coronary stenoses in humans with magnetic resonance imaging.] ''Circulation'' 99 (25):3248-54. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10385498 10385498]</ref> and in-stent restenosis <ref name="pmid12665488">Nagel E, Thouet T, Klein C, Schalla S, Bornstedt A, Schnackenburg B et al. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12665488 Noninvasive determination of coronary blood flow velocity with cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients after stent deployment.] ''Circulation'' 107 (13):1738-43. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000060542.79482.81 DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000060542.79482.81] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12665488 12665488]</ref>. CMR imaging is also very accurate in the prediction of graft patency <ref name="pmid11756716">Langerak SE, Kunz P, Vliegen HW, Jukema JW, Zwinderman AH, Steendijk P et al. (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11756716 MR flow mapping in coronary artery bypass grafts: a validation study with Doppler flow measurements.] ''Radiology'' 222 (1):127-35. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11756716 11756716]</ref>.
::*Coronary angiography and coronary flow evaluation: Coronary flow reserve is useful in the identification of LAD stenosis <ref name="pmid10385498">Hundley WG, Hamilton CA, Clarke GD, Hillis LD, Herrington DM, Lange RA et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10385498 Visualization and functional assessment of proximal and middle left anterior descending coronary stenoses in humans with magnetic resonance imaging.] ''Circulation'' 99 (25):3248-54. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10385498 10385498]</ref> and in-stent restenosis <ref name="pmid12665488">Nagel E, Thouet T, Klein C, Schalla S, Bornstedt A, Schnackenburg B et al. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12665488 Noninvasive determination of coronary blood flow velocity with cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients after stent deployment.] ''Circulation'' 107 (13):1738-43. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000060542.79482.81 DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000060542.79482.81] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/12665488 12665488]</ref>. CMR imaging is also very accurate in the prediction of graft patency <ref name="pmid11756716">Langerak SE, Kunz P, Vliegen HW, Jukema JW, Zwinderman AH, Steendijk P et al. (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11756716 MR flow mapping in coronary artery bypass grafts: a validation study with Doppler flow measurements.] ''Radiology'' 222 (1):127-35. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/11756716 11756716]</ref>.


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 21:00, 18 January 2013

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Phone:617-632-7753; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]; Smita Kohli, M.D.; Lakshmi Gopalakrishnan, M.B.B.S.

Overview

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) is a non-invasive test that is useful in the evaluation of overall coronary anatomy and function. CMRI also helps in the identification of inflammation [1], neovascularization [2] and fibrous cap,[3] It, therefore, holds the potential for plaque characterization.

Indications for CMR based on Consensus Panel report [4]

“

Class I

1. Assessment of global ventricular (left and right) function and mass

2. Detection of coronary artery disease

a. Coronary MRA (anomalies)

3. Acute and chronic myocardial infarction

a. Detection and assessment
b. Myocardial viability

Class II

1. Detection of coronary artery disease

a. Regional left ventricular function at rest and during dobutamine stress
b. Assessment of myocardial perfusion
c. Coronary MRA of bypass graft patency

2. Acute and chronic myocardial infarction

a. Ventricular thrombus

Class III

1. Detection of coronary artery disease

a. Coronary MRA (CAD)

2. Acute and chronic myocardial infarction

a. Ventricular septal defect
b. Mitral regurgitation (acute MI)

Class Inv

1. Detection of coronary artery disease

a. MR flow measurements in the coronary arteries
b. Arterial wall imaging

2. Acute and chronic myocardial infarction

a. Acute coronary syndromes
 ”

Note:

  • Class I: provides clinically relevant information and is usually appropriate; may be used as first line imaging technique; usually supported by substantial literature.
  • Class II: provides clinically relevant information and is frequently useful; other techniques may provide similar information; supported by limited literature.
  • Class III: provides clinically relevant information but is infrequently used because information from other imaging techniques is usually adequate.
  • Class Inv: potentially useful, but still investigational.

Detection of CAD using CMRI

  • Early detection of atherosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction using CMRI is possible with arterial wall imaging and assessing the reactivity of brachial artery.
  • CMRI can be used to image arteries outside the heart [5] which are affected long before the clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis [6].
  • Direct endothelial function can be measured non-invasively using stimuli that causes flow mediated arterial vasodilatation [7]. CMRI measures flow changes in response to stimuli in addition to measuring brachial dilation [8].
  • Alternative approaches include:
  • Visualization of the effects of induced ischemia (wall motion, perfusion)
  • Stress wall motion abnormalities: In patients with CAD, dobutamine stress CMR is helpful to identify ischemia-induced wall motion abnormalities [9] and is considered effective is patients who are unsuitable for dobutamine echocardiography [10].
  • Myocardial perfusion: In patients with CAD, CMR showed improvement in myocardial perfusion after coronary angioplasty [11] and in patients with cadiac syndrome X impaired sub-endocardial perfusion was observed [12].
  • Direct visualization of coronary arteries (coronary angiography and flow)
  • Coronary angiography and coronary flow evaluation: Coronary flow reserve is useful in the identification of LAD stenosis [13] and in-stent restenosis [14]. CMR imaging is also very accurate in the prediction of graft patency [15].

References

  1. ↑ Ruehm SG, Corot C, Vogt P, Kolb S, Debatin JF (2001) Magnetic resonance imaging of atherosclerotic plaque with ultrasmall superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in hyperlipidemic rabbits. Circulation 103 (3):415-22. PMID: 11157694
  2. ↑ Kerwin W, Hooker A, Spilker M, Vicini P, Ferguson M, Hatsukami T et al. (2003) Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging analysis of neovasculature volume in carotid atherosclerotic plaque. Circulation 107 (6):851-6. PMID: 12591755
  3. ↑ Wasserman BA, Smith WI, Trout HH, Cannon RO, Balaban RS, Arai AE (2002) Carotid artery atherosclerosis: in vivo morphologic characterization with gadolinium-enhanced double-oblique MR imaging initial results. Radiology 223 (2):566-73. PMID: 11997569
  4. ↑ Pennell DJ, Sechtem UP, Higgins CB, Manning WJ, Pohost GM, Rademakers FE et al. (2004) Clinical indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR): Consensus Panel report. Eur Heart J 25 (21):1940-65. DOI:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.06.040 PMID: 15522474
  5. ↑ Cai JM, Hatsukami TS, Ferguson MS, Small R, Polissar NL, Yuan C (2002) Classification of human carotid atherosclerotic lesions with in vivo multicontrast magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 106 (11):1368-73. PMID: 12221054
  6. ↑ Glagov S, Weisenberg E, Zarins CK, Stankunavicius R, Kolettis GJ (1987) Compensatory enlargement of human atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med 316 (22):1371-5. DOI:10.1056/NEJM198705283162204 PMID: 3574413
  7. ↑ Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, Spiegelhalter DJ, Miller OI, Sullivan ID et al. (1992) Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 340 (8828):1111-5. PMID: 1359209
  8. ↑ Silber HA, Bluemke DA, Ouyang P, Du YP, Post WS, Lima JA (2001) The relationship between vascular wall shear stress and flow-mediated dilation: endothelial function assessed by phase-contrast magnetic resonance angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 38 (7):1859-65. PMID: 11738285
  9. ↑ Nagel E, Lorenz C, Baer F, Hundley WG, Wilke N, Neubauer S et al. (2001) Stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance: consensus panel report. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 3 (3):267-81. PMID: 11816623
  10. ↑ Hundley WG, Hamilton CA, Thomas MS, Herrington DM, Salido TB, Kitzman DW et al. (1999) Utility of fast cine magnetic resonance imaging and display for the detection of myocardial ischemia in patients not well suited for second harmonic stress echocardiography. Circulation 100 (16):1697-702. PMID: 10525488
  11. ↑ Al-Saadi N, Nagel E, Gross M, Schnackenburg B, Paetsch I, Klein C et al. (2000) Improvement of myocardial perfusion reserve early after coronary intervention: assessment with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol 36 (5):1557-64. PMID: 11079658
  12. ↑ Panting JR, Gatehouse PD, Yang GZ, Grothues F, Firmin DN, Collins P et al. (2002) Abnormal subendocardial perfusion in cardiac syndrome X detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging. N Engl J Med 346 (25):1948-53. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa012369 PMID: 12075055
  13. ↑ Hundley WG, Hamilton CA, Clarke GD, Hillis LD, Herrington DM, Lange RA et al. (1999) Visualization and functional assessment of proximal and middle left anterior descending coronary stenoses in humans with magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 99 (25):3248-54. PMID: 10385498
  14. ↑ Nagel E, Thouet T, Klein C, Schalla S, Bornstedt A, Schnackenburg B et al. (2003) Noninvasive determination of coronary blood flow velocity with cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients after stent deployment. Circulation 107 (13):1738-43. DOI:10.1161/01.CIR.0000060542.79482.81 PMID: 12665488
  15. ↑ Langerak SE, Kunz P, Vliegen HW, Jukema JW, Zwinderman AH, Steendijk P et al. (2002) MR flow mapping in coronary artery bypass grafts: a validation study with Doppler flow measurements. Radiology 222 (1):127-35. PMID: 11756716

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