Ventilator-associated pneumonia causes: Difference between revisions
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The microbiologic [[Flora (microbiology)|flora]] responsible for VAP is different from that of the more common [[community-acquired pneumonia]] (CAP). In particular, viruses and fungi are uncommon causes in people who do not have underlying [[immunocompromise|immune deficiencies]]. Though any microorganism that causes CAP can cause VAP, there are several bacteria which are particularly important causes of VAP because of their resistance to commonly used antibiotics. These bacteria are referred to as [[multidrug resistance|multidrug resistant]] (MDR). | The microbiologic [[Flora (microbiology)|flora]] responsible for VAP is different from that of the more common [[community-acquired pneumonia]] (CAP). In particular, viruses and fungi are uncommon causes in people who do not have underlying [[immunocompromise|immune deficiencies]]. Though any microorganism that causes CAP can cause VAP, there are several bacteria which are particularly important causes of VAP because of their resistance to commonly used antibiotics. These bacteria are referred to as [[multidrug resistance|multidrug resistant]] (MDR). | ||
:*''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' is the most common MDR [[ | :*''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' is the most common MDR [[gram-negative]] bacterium causing VAP. ''Pseudomonas'' has natural resistance to many antibiotics and has been known to acquire resistance to every antibiotic except for [[polymixin B]]. Resistance is typically acquired through upregulation or mutation of a variety of efflux pumps which pump antbiotics out of the cell. Resistance may also occur through loss of an outer membrane porin channel ([[OprD]]) | ||
:*''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'' has natural resistance to some [[Beta-lactam antibiotic|beta-lactam antibiotic]]s such as [[ampicillin]]. Resistance to [[cephalosporins]] and [[aztreonam]] may arise through [[Enzyme induction and inhibition|induction]] of a [[plasmid]]-based extended spectrum [[beta-lactamase]] (ESBL) or plasmid-based [[ampC]]-type [[enzyme]] | :*''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'' has natural resistance to some [[Beta-lactam antibiotic|beta-lactam antibiotic]]s such as [[ampicillin]]. Resistance to [[cephalosporins]] and [[aztreonam]] may arise through [[Enzyme induction and inhibition|induction]] of a [[plasmid]]-based extended spectrum [[beta-lactamase]] (ESBL) or plasmid-based [[ampC]]-type [[enzyme]]. | ||
:*''[[Serratia marcescens]]'' has an ampC [[gene]] which can be induced by exposure to antibiotics such as cephalosporins. Thus, culture sensitivities may initially indicate appropriate treatment which fails due to bacterial response. | :*''[[Serratia marcescens]]'' has an ampC [[gene]] which can be induced by exposure to antibiotics such as cephalosporins. Thus, culture sensitivities may initially indicate appropriate treatment which fails due to bacterial response. | ||
:*''[[Enterobacter]]'' as a group also have an inducible ampC gene. Enterobacter may also develop resistance by acquiring plasmids. | :*''[[Enterobacter]]'' as a group also have an inducible ampC gene. Enterobacter may also develop resistance by acquiring plasmids. | ||
:*''[[Citrobacter]]'' also has an inducible ampC gene. | :*''[[Citrobacter]]'' also has an inducible ampC gene. | ||
:*''[[Stenotrophomonas maltophilia]]'' often colonizes people who have [[endotracheal tube]]s or [[tracheostomy|tracheostomies]] but can also cause pneumonia. It is often resistant to a wide array of antibiotics but is usually sensitive to [[co-trimoxazole]] | :*''[[Stenotrophomonas maltophilia]]'' often colonizes people who have [[endotracheal tube]]s or [[tracheostomy|tracheostomies]] but can also cause pneumonia. It is often resistant to a wide array of antibiotics but is usually sensitive to [[co-trimoxazole]]. | ||
:*''[[Acinetobacter]]'' are becoming more common and may be resistant to [[carbapenem]]s such as [[imipenem]] and [[meropenem]] | :*''[[Acinetobacter]]'' are becoming more common and may be resistant to [[carbapenem]]s such as [[imipenem]] and [[meropenem]]. | ||
:*''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]'' is an important organism in people with cystic fibrosis and is often resistant to multiple antibiotics | :*''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]'' is an important organism in people with cystic fibrosis and is often resistant to multiple antibiotics. | ||
:*''[[Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus]]'' is an increasing cause of VAP. As many as fifty percent of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' isolates in the intensive care setting are resistant to methicillin. Resistance is conferred by the [[mecA]] gene. | :*''[[Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus]]'' is an increasing cause of VAP. As many as fifty percent of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' isolates in the intensive care setting are resistant to methicillin. Resistance is conferred by the [[mecA]] gene. | ||
Revision as of 16:53, 25 March 2013
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief: Priyamvada Singh, M.D. [2]
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Causes
The microbiologic flora responsible for VAP is different from that of the more common community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). In particular, viruses and fungi are uncommon causes in people who do not have underlying immune deficiencies. Though any microorganism that causes CAP can cause VAP, there are several bacteria which are particularly important causes of VAP because of their resistance to commonly used antibiotics. These bacteria are referred to as multidrug resistant (MDR).
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common MDR gram-negative bacterium causing VAP. Pseudomonas has natural resistance to many antibiotics and has been known to acquire resistance to every antibiotic except for polymixin B. Resistance is typically acquired through upregulation or mutation of a variety of efflux pumps which pump antbiotics out of the cell. Resistance may also occur through loss of an outer membrane porin channel (OprD)
- Klebsiella pneumoniae has natural resistance to some beta-lactam antibiotics such as ampicillin. Resistance to cephalosporins and aztreonam may arise through induction of a plasmid-based extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) or plasmid-based ampC-type enzyme.
- Serratia marcescens has an ampC gene which can be induced by exposure to antibiotics such as cephalosporins. Thus, culture sensitivities may initially indicate appropriate treatment which fails due to bacterial response.
- Enterobacter as a group also have an inducible ampC gene. Enterobacter may also develop resistance by acquiring plasmids.
- Citrobacter also has an inducible ampC gene.
- Stenotrophomonas maltophilia often colonizes people who have endotracheal tubes or tracheostomies but can also cause pneumonia. It is often resistant to a wide array of antibiotics but is usually sensitive to co-trimoxazole.
- Acinetobacter are becoming more common and may be resistant to carbapenems such as imipenem and meropenem.
- Burkholderia cepacia is an important organism in people with cystic fibrosis and is often resistant to multiple antibiotics.
- Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is an increasing cause of VAP. As many as fifty percent of Staphylococcus aureus isolates in the intensive care setting are resistant to methicillin. Resistance is conferred by the mecA gene.