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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Risk factors for high LDL include [[genetic predisposition]], [[aging]], and unhealthy life style choices. | |||
==Common Risk Factors== | ==Common Risk Factors== | ||
Common risk factors for elevated LDL concentration include: | |||
*Genetic predisposition | * Genetic predisposition and family: The genetic predisposition to elevated LDL most probably involves a polygenic mechanism and a variable penetrance.<ref name="Talmud-2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Talmud | first1 = PJ. | last2 = Shah | first2 = S. | last3 = Whittall | first3 = R. | last4 = Futema | first4 = M. | last5 = Howard | first5 = P. | last6 = Cooper | first6 = JA. | last7 = Harrison | first7 = SC. | last8 = Li | first8 = K. | last9 = Drenos | first9 = F. | title = Use of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol gene score to distinguish patients with polygenic and monogenic familial hypercholesterolaemia: a case-control study. | journal = Lancet | volume = 381 | issue = 9874 | pages = 1293-301 | month = Apr | year = 2013 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62127-8 | PMID = 23433573 }}</ref> | ||
*Aging | |||
* | * Aging: Men who are 45 years or older and women who are 55 years or older are at increased risk of having high LDL levels.<ref name="Félix-Redondo-2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Félix-Redondo | first1 = FJ. | last2 = Grau | first2 = M. | last3 = Fernández-Bergés | first3 = D. | title = Cholesterol and cardiovascular disease in the elderly. Facts and gaps. | journal = Aging Dis | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 154-69 | month = Jun | year = 2013 | doi = | PMID = 23730531 }}</ref><ref name="Parini-1999">{{Cite journal | last1 = Parini | first1 = P. | last2 = Angelin | first2 = B. | last3 = Rudling | first3 = M. | title = Cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism in aging: reversal of hypercholesterolemia by growth hormone treatment in old rats. | journal = Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 832-9 | month = Apr | year = 1999 | doi = | PMID = 10195906 }}</ref> | ||
*Life style choices | |||
* | * Menopause <ref name="Lee-2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = JS. | last2 = Hayashi | first2 = K. | last3 = Mishra | first3 = G. | last4 = Yasui | first4 = T. | last5 = Kubota | first5 = T. | last6 = Mizunuma | first6 = H. | title = Independent association between age at natural menopause and hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus: Japan nurses' health study. | journal = J Atheroscler Thromb | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 161-9 | month = Feb | year = 2013 | doi = | PMID = 23079582 }}</ref><ref name="Honjo-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Honjo | first1 = H. | last2 = Tanaka | first2 = K. | last3 = Urabe | first3 = M. | last4 = Naitoh | first4 = K. | last5 = Ogino | first5 = Y. | last6 = Yamamoto | first6 = T. | last7 = Okada | first7 = H. | title = Menopause and hyperlipidemia: pravastatin lowers lipid levels without decreasing endogenous estrogens. | journal = Clin Ther | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 699-707 | month = | year = | doi = | PMID = 1345259 }}</ref> | ||
*[[Type 2 diabetes]] | |||
*[[Pregnancy]] | * Life style choices:<ref name="Magnussen-2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Magnussen | first1 = CG. | last2 = Thomson | first2 = R. | last3 = Cleland | first3 = VJ. | last4 = Ukoumunne | first4 = OC. | last5 = Dwyer | first5 = T. | last6 = Venn | first6 = A. | title = Factors affecting the stability of blood lipid and lipoprotein levels from youth to adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study. | journal = Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | volume = 165 | issue = 1 | pages = 68-76 | month = Jan | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.246 | PMID = 21199983 }}</ref> | ||
*[[Puberty]] can predispose to both increase in LDL level and LDL particle size | ** A diet high in [[trans fat]] and [[saturated fat]] | ||
** Physical inactivity | |||
** Smoking (especially in diabetics) | |||
** Excessive alcohol intake | |||
* Overweight or obesity<ref name="Kesaniemi-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kesaniemi | first1 = YA. | last2 = Grundy | first2 = SM. | title = Increased low density lipoprotein production associated with obesity. | journal = Arteriosclerosis | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 170-7 | month = | year = | doi = | PMID = 6838434 }}</ref> | |||
*[[Type 2 diabetes]]<ref name="Harris-1991">{{Cite journal | last1 = Harris | first1 = MI. | title = Hypercholesterolemia in diabetes and glucose intolerance in the U.S. population. | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 366-74 | month = May | year = 1991 | doi = | PMID = 2060448 | journal = Indian J Clin Biochem | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 209-17 | month = Jul | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s12291-008-0048-9 | PMID = 2310575}}</ref> | |||
*[[Pregnancy]]<ref name="Emet-2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Emet | first1 = T. | last2 = Ustüner | first2 = I. | last3 = Güven | first3 = SG. | last4 = Balık | first4 = G. | last5 = Ural | first5 = UM. | last6 = Tekin | first6 = YB. | last7 = Sentürk | first7 = S. | last8 = Sahin | first8 = FK. | last9 = Avşar | first9 = AF. | title = Plasma lipids and lipoproteins during pregnancy and related pregnancy outcomes. | journal = Arch Gynecol Obstet | volume = 288 | issue = 1 | pages = 49-55 | month = Jul | year = 2013 | doi = 10.1007/s00404-013-2750-y | PMID = 23400357 }}</ref> | |||
*[[Puberty]]: Puberty can predispose to both increase in LDL level and LDL particle size<ref name="Kaitosaari-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kaitosaari | first1 = T. | last2 = Simell | first2 = O. | last3 = Viikari | first3 = J. | last4 = Raitakari | first4 = O. | last5 = Siltala | first5 = M. | last6 = Hakanen | first6 = M. | last7 = Leino | first7 = A. | last8 = Jokinen | first8 = E. | last9 = Rönnemaa | first9 = T. | title = Tracking and determinants of LDL particle size in healthy children from 7 to 11 years of age: the STRIP Study. | journal = Eur J Pediatr | volume = 168 | issue = 5 | pages = 531-9 | month = May | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1007/s00431-008-0780-4 | PMID = 18604555 }}</ref><ref name="Chen-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Chen | first1 = TJ. | last2 = Ji | first2 = CY. | last3 = Hu | first3 = YH. | title = Genetic and environmental influences on serum lipids and the effects of puberty: a Chinese twin study. | journal = Acta Paediatr | volume = 98 | issue = 6 | pages = 1029-36 | month = Jun | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01257.x | PMID = 19292833 }}</ref> | |||
==Less Common Risk Factors== | ==Less Common Risk Factors== | ||
[[Malnutrition]] | * [[Malnutrition]]<ref name="Rao-2008">{{Cite journal | last1 = Rao | first1 = P. | last2 = Reddy | first2 = GC. | last3 = Kanagasabapathy | first3 = AS. | title = Malnutrition-inflammation-atherosclerosis syndrome in Chronic Kidney disease}}</ref> | ||
==References== | ==References== |
Revision as of 02:25, 28 September 2014
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Vendhan Ramanujam M.B.B.S [2]
Overview
Risk factors for high LDL include genetic predisposition, aging, and unhealthy life style choices.
Common Risk Factors
Common risk factors for elevated LDL concentration include:
- Genetic predisposition and family: The genetic predisposition to elevated LDL most probably involves a polygenic mechanism and a variable penetrance.[1]
- Aging: Men who are 45 years or older and women who are 55 years or older are at increased risk of having high LDL levels.[2][3]
- Life style choices:[6]
- A diet high in trans fat and saturated fat
- Physical inactivity
- Smoking (especially in diabetics)
- Excessive alcohol intake
- Overweight or obesity[7]
Less Common Risk Factors
References
- ↑ Talmud, PJ.; Shah, S.; Whittall, R.; Futema, M.; Howard, P.; Cooper, JA.; Harrison, SC.; Li, K.; Drenos, F. (2013). "Use of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol gene score to distinguish patients with polygenic and monogenic familial hypercholesterolaemia: a case-control study". Lancet. 381 (9874): 1293–301. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62127-8. PMID 23433573. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Félix-Redondo, FJ.; Grau, M.; Fernández-Bergés, D. (2013). "Cholesterol and cardiovascular disease in the elderly. Facts and gaps". Aging Dis. 4 (3): 154–69. PMID 23730531. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Parini, P.; Angelin, B.; Rudling, M. (1999). "Cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism in aging: reversal of hypercholesterolemia by growth hormone treatment in old rats". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 19 (4): 832–9. PMID 10195906. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Lee, JS.; Hayashi, K.; Mishra, G.; Yasui, T.; Kubota, T.; Mizunuma, H. (2013). "Independent association between age at natural menopause and hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus: Japan nurses' health study". J Atheroscler Thromb. 20 (2): 161–9. PMID 23079582. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Honjo, H.; Tanaka, K.; Urabe, M.; Naitoh, K.; Ogino, Y.; Yamamoto, T.; Okada, H. "Menopause and hyperlipidemia: pravastatin lowers lipid levels without decreasing endogenous estrogens". Clin Ther. 14 (5): 699–707. PMID 1345259.
- ↑ Magnussen, CG.; Thomson, R.; Cleland, VJ.; Ukoumunne, OC.; Dwyer, T.; Venn, A. (2011). "Factors affecting the stability of blood lipid and lipoprotein levels from youth to adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 165 (1): 68–76. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.246. PMID 21199983. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Kesaniemi, YA.; Grundy, SM. "Increased low density lipoprotein production associated with obesity". Arteriosclerosis. 3 (2): 170–7. PMID 6838434.
- ↑ Harris, MI. (2008). "Hypercholesterolemia in diabetes and glucose intolerance in the U.S. population". Indian J Clin Biochem. 23 (3): 209–17. doi:10.1007/s12291-008-0048-9. PMID 2310575. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Emet, T.; Ustüner, I.; Güven, SG.; Balık, G.; Ural, UM.; Tekin, YB.; Sentürk, S.; Sahin, FK.; Avşar, AF. (2013). "Plasma lipids and lipoproteins during pregnancy and related pregnancy outcomes". Arch Gynecol Obstet. 288 (1): 49–55. doi:10.1007/s00404-013-2750-y. PMID 23400357. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Kaitosaari, T.; Simell, O.; Viikari, J.; Raitakari, O.; Siltala, M.; Hakanen, M.; Leino, A.; Jokinen, E.; Rönnemaa, T. (2009). "Tracking and determinants of LDL particle size in healthy children from 7 to 11 years of age: the STRIP Study". Eur J Pediatr. 168 (5): 531–9. doi:10.1007/s00431-008-0780-4. PMID 18604555. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Chen, TJ.; Ji, CY.; Hu, YH. (2009). "Genetic and environmental influences on serum lipids and the effects of puberty: a Chinese twin study". Acta Paediatr. 98 (6): 1029–36. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01257.x. PMID 19292833. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Rao, P.; Reddy, GC.; Kanagasabapathy, AS. "Malnutrition-inflammation-atherosclerosis syndrome in Chronic Kidney disease".