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**[[Antiepileptics]]<ref>Ettinger AB. "Psychotropic effects of antiepileptic drugs". Neurology. 2006 Dec 12;67(11):1916-25.</ref>
**[[Antiepileptics]]<ref>Ettinger AB. "Psychotropic effects of antiepileptic drugs". Neurology. 2006 Dec 12;67(11):1916-25.</ref>
**Medications (usually cold medications) that contain [[phenylpropanolamine]] or [[PPA]] <ref>http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=3060884 Psychiatric side effects attributed to phenylpropanolamine, ''Pharmacopsychiatry'' 1988 Jul; 21(4):171-81</ref>
**Medications (usually cold medications) that contain [[phenylpropanolamine]] or [[PPA]] <ref>http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=3060884 Psychiatric side effects attributed to phenylpropanolamine, ''Pharmacopsychiatry'' 1988 Jul; 21(4):171-81</ref>
** Other medications- [[Isotretinoin]]


*"Street" drugs, such as:
*"Street" drugs, such as:

Revision as of 17:06, 12 December 2014

Psychosis Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]

Causes

Causes of mental illness are customarily distinguished as "organic" or "functional". Organic causes are those for which a medical, pathophysiological basis can be found. Functional causes are "the rest", the psychological causes properly speaking, e.g. anxiety, depression, etc.

"Functional" causes

Functional causes of psychosis include the following:

A psychotic episode can be significantly affected by mood. For example, people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of depression may experience persecutory or self-blaming delusions or hallucinations, while people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of mania may form grandiose delusions.

Stress is known to contribute to and trigger psychotic states. A history of psychologically traumatic events, and the recent experience of a stressful event, can both contribute to the development of psychosis. Short-lived psychosis triggered by stress is known as brief reactive psychosis, and patients may spontaneously recover normal functioning within two weeks.[1] In some rare cases, individuals may remain in a state of full-blown psychosis for many years, or perhaps have attenuated psychotic symptoms (such as low intensity hallucinations) present at most times.

Sleep deprivation has been linked to psychosis.[2][3][4] However, this is not a risk for most people, who merely experience hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations, i.e. unusual sensory experiences or thoughts that appear during waking or drifting off to sleep. These are normal sleep phenomena and are not considered signs of psychosis.[5]

"Organic" causes

Psychosis arising from "organic" (non-psychological) conditions is sometimes known as secondary psychosis. It can be associated with the following pathologies:

Psychosis can even be caused by apparently innocuous ailments such as flu[35][36] or mumps.[37]

Psychoactive drugs

Psychotic states may occur with Psychoactive drug intoxication or withdrawal. Drugs whose use, abuse or withdrawal are implicated include:

Intoxication with drugs that have general depressant effects on the central nervous system (especially alcohol and barbiturates) tend not to cause psychosis during use, and can actually decrease or lessen the impact of symptoms in some people. However, withdrawal from barbiturates and alcohol can be particularly dangerous, leading to psychosis or delirium and other, potentially lethal, withdrawal effects.

Some studies indicate that cannabis use may lower the threshold for psychosis, and thus help to trigger full-blown psychosis in some people.[59] Early studies have been criticized for failing to consider other drugs (such as LSD) that the participants may have used before or during the study, as well as other factors such as pre-existing ("comorbid") mental illness. However, more recent studies with better controls have still found a small increase in risk for psychosis in cannabis users.

It is not clear whether this is a causal link, and it is possible that cannabis use only increases the chance of psychosis in people already predisposed to it; or that people with developing psychosis use cannabis to provide temporary relief of their mental discomfort. The fact that cannabis use has increased over the past few decades, whereas the rate of psychosis has not, suggests that a direct causal link is unlikely for all users.[60]

References

  1. ↑ Jauch, D. A. (1988). "Reactive psychosis. I. Does the pre-DSM-III concept define a third psychosis?". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 176 (2): 72–81. PMID 3276813. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Sharma, Verinder (2003). "Sleep loss and postpartum psychosis". Bipolar Disorders. 5 (2): 98–105. doi:10.1034/j.1399-5618.2003.00015.x. PMID 12680898. Retrieved 2006-09-27. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Chan-Ob, T. (1999). "Meditation in association with psychosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. 82 (9): 925–930. PMID 10561951. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Devillieres, P. (1996). "[Delusion and sleep deprivation]". L'Encéphale. 22 (3): 229–231. Parameter error in {{PMID}}: Missing PMID.. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Ohayon, M. M. (1996). "Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations: pathological phenomena?". British Journal of Psychiatry. 169 (4): 459–467. PMID 8894197. Retrieved 2006-10-21. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Lisanby, S. H. (1998). "Psychosis Secondary to Brain Tumor". Seminars in clinical neuropsychiatry. 3 (1): 12–22. PMID 10085187. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ McKeith, Ian G. (2002). "Dementia with Lewy bodies". British Journal of Psychiatry. 180: 144–147. PMID 11823325. Retrieved 2006-09-27. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ Template:Es icon Rodriguez Gomez, Diego (August 16-31, 2005). "Psicosis aguda como inicio de esclerosis multiple / Acute psychosis as the presenting symptom of multiple sclerosis / Psicose aguda como inicio de esclerose multipla". Revista de Neurología. 41 (4): 255–256. PMID 16075405. Retrieved 2006-09-27. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ↑ Bona, Joseph R. (1998). "Neurosarcoidosis as a Cause of Refractory Psychosis: A Complicated Case Report". American Journal of Psychiatry. 155 (8): 1106–1108. PMID 9699702. Retrieved 2006-09-29. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ [1] Fallon BA, Nields JA. "Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness". Am J Psychiatry. 1994 Nov;151(11):1571-83.
  11. ↑ Hess A, Buchmann J, Zettl UK, Henschel S, Schlaefke D, Grau G, Benecke R."Borrelia burgdorferi central nervous system infection presenting as an organic schizophrenialike disorder". Biol Psychiatry. 1999 Mar 15;45(6):795.
  12. ↑ van den Bergen HA, Smith JP, van der Zwan A. "Lyme psychosis". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1993 Oct 9;137(41):2098-100.
  13. ↑ Kararizou E, Mitsonis C, Dimopoulos N, Gkiatas K, Markou I, Kalfakis N. "Psychosis or simply a new manifestation of neurosyphilis?" J Int Med Res. 2006 May-Jun;34(3):335-7.
  14. ↑ Brooke D, Jamie P, Slack R, Sulaiman M, Tyrer P. "Neurosyphilis--a treatable psychosis". Br J Psychiatry. 1987 Oct;151:556.
  15. ↑ Lesser JM, Hughes S. "Psychosis-related disturbances. Psychosis, agitation, and disinhibition in Alzheimer's disease: definitions and treatment options." Geriatrics. 2006 Dec;61(12):14-20. Review.
  16. ↑ Wedekind S."Depressive syndrome, psychoses, dementia: frequent manifestations in Parkinson disease" MMW Fortschr Med. 2005 Jun 2;147(22):11. German.
  17. ↑ Rossman, Phillip L. (1956). "Postpartum Tetany and Psychosis Due to Hypocalcemia" (PDF). California Medicine. 85 (3): 190–193. PMID 13356186. Retrieved 2006-10-16. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  18. ↑ Jana, D. K. (1973). "Hypernatremic psychosis in the elderly: case reports". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 21 (10): 473–477. PMID 4729012. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ↑ Haensch, C. A. (1996). "[Reversible exogenous psychosis in thiazide-induced hyponatremia of 97 mmol/l]". Der Nervenarzt. 67 (4): 319–322. PMID 8684511. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ Hafez, H. (1984). "Hypokalemia-induced psychosis in a chronic schizophrenic patient". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 45 (6): 277–279. PMID 6725222. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ Konstantakos, Anastasios K. (May 25, 2006). "Hypomagnesemia". eMedicine. WebMD. Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ↑ Velasco, P. Joel (1999). "Psychiatric Aspects of Parathyroid Disease". Psychosomatics. 40 (6): 486–490. PMID 10581976. Retrieved 2006-10-17. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ Rosenthal, M. (1997). "Primary hyperparathyroidism: neuropsychiatric manifestations and case report". Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences. 34 (2): 122–125. PMID 9231574. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ Nanji, A. A. (1984). "The psychiatric aspect of hypophosphatemia". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 29 (7): 599–600. PMID 6391648. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. ↑ Template:Cite online journal
  26. ↑ Robert, M. (2006). "Neuropsychiatric manifestations systemic lupus erythematosus: A study from South India". Neurology India. 54 (1): 75–77. PMID 16679649. Retrieved 2006-09-29. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ Evans, Dwight L. (2002-02-01). "Chapter 90: Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of HIV-1 Infection and AIDS". In Kenneth L Davis, Dennis Charney, Joseph T Coyle, Charles Nemeroff. Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1281–1301. ISBN 0-7817-2837-1. Retrieved 2006-10-16. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  28. ↑ Lowinger, Paul (1959). "LEPROSY AND PSYCHOSIS". American Journal of Psychiatry. 116 (1): 32–37. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.116.1.32. Parameter error in {{PMID}}: Missing PMID.. Retrieved 2006-10-17. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  29. ↑ Ponomareff, G. L. (1965). "PHENOMENOLOGY OF DELUSIONS IN A CASE OF LEPROSY" (PDF). American Journal of Psychiatry. 121 (12): 1211. PMID 14286061. Retrieved 2006-10-17. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  30. ↑ Tilluckdharry, C. C. (1996). "A case of vivax malaria presenting with psychosis". West Indian Medical Journal. 45 (1): 39–40. PMID 8693739. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ Denier C, Orgibet A, Roffi F, Jouvent E, Buhl C, Niel F, Boespflug-Tanguy O, Said G, Ducreux D (2007). "Adult-onset vanishing white matter leukoencephalopathy presenting as psychosis". Neurology. 68 (18): 1538–9. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000260701.76868.44. PMID 17470759.
  32. ↑ Hermle L, Becker FW, Egan PJ, Kolb G, Wesiack B, Spitzer M (1997). "[Metachromatic leukodystrophy simulating schizophrenia-like psychosis]". Der Nervenarzt (in German). 68 (9): 754–8. PMID 9411279.
  33. ↑ Black DN, Taber KH, Hurley RA (2003). "Metachromatic leukodystrophy: a model for the study of psychosis". The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences. 15 (3): 289–93. PMID 12928504.free full text
  34. ↑ Kumperscak HG, Paschke E, Gradisnik P, Vidmar J, Bradac SU (2005). "Adult metachromatic leukodystrophy: disorganized schizophrenia-like symptoms and postpartum depression in 2 sisters". Journal of psychiatry & neuroscience : JPN. 30 (1): 33–6. PMID 15644995.free full text
  35. ↑ Steinberg, D. (1972). "Influenza infection causing manic psychosis". British Journal of Psychiatry. 120 (558): 531–535. PMID 5041533. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ↑ Maurizi, C. P. (1985). "Influenza and mania: a possible connection with the locus ceruleus". Southern Medical Journal. 78 (2): 207–209. PMID 3975719. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ Keddie, K. M. (1965). "Toxic psychosis following mumps". British Journal of Psychiatry. 111: 691–696. PMID 14337417. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ Larson, Michael (2006-03-30). "Alcohol-Related Psychosis". eMedicine. WebMD. Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ Soyka, Michael (1990). "Psychopathological characteristics in alcohol hallucinosis and paranoid schizophrenia". Acta Psychiatrica Scandanavica. 81 (3): 255–9. PMID 2343749. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ↑ Gossman, William (November 19, 2005). "Delirium Tremens". eMedicine. WebMD. Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help)
  41. ↑ Sexton, J. D. (1997). "Diphenhydramine-induced psychosis with therapeutic doses". American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 15 (5): 548–549. PMID 9270406. Retrieved 2006-09-29. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  42. ↑ Lang, K. (December 8, 1995). "[An anticholinergic syndrome with hallucinatory psychosis after diphenhydramine poisoning]". Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift. 120 (49): 1695–1698. PMID 7497894. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  43. ↑ Schreiber, W. (February 5, 1988). "[Toxic psychosis as an acute manifestation of diphenhydramine poisoning]". Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift. 113 (5): 180–183. PMID 3338401. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. ↑ Timnak, Charles (2004). "Promethazine-Induced Psychosis in a 16-Year-Old Girl". Psychosomatics. 45 (1): 89–90. PMID 14709767. Retrieved 2006-09-29. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  45. ↑ Official Journal of American Pediatrics - PEDIATRICS Vol. 108 No. 3 September 2001, p. e52
  46. ↑ de Paola, Luciano (2004). "Bizarre behavior during intracarotid sodium amytal testing (Wada test): Are they predictable?". Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria. 62 (2B): 444–448. doi:10.1590/S0004-282X2004000300012. PMID 15273841. Retrieved 2006-10-15. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  47. ↑ Sarrecchia, C. (1998). "[Barbiturate withdrawal syndrome: a case associated with the abuse of a headache medication]". Annali Italiani di Medicina Interna. 13 (4): 237–239. PMID 10349206. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  48. ↑ White, M. C. (1982). "Psychosis associated with clonazepam therapy for blepharospasm". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 170 (2): 117–9. PMID 7057171. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  49. ↑ Jaffe, R. (1986). "Clonazepam withdrawal psychosis". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 6 (3): 193. PMID 3711371. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  50. ↑ Hallberg, R. J. (1964). "KORSAKOFF-LIKE PSYCHOSIS ASSOCIATED WITH BENZODIAZEPINE OVERDOSAGE" (PDF). American Journal of Psychiatry. 121 (2): 188–189. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.121.2.188. PMID 14194223. Retrieved 2006-10-15. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  51. ↑ Bergman, K. R. "Atropine-induced psychosis. An unusual complication of therapy with inhaled atropine sulfate" (Infotrieve). Chest. 78 (6): 891–893. PMID 7449475. Retrieved 2006-10-15. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  52. ↑ Varghese, S. (1990). "Ocular atropine induced psychosis--is there a direct access route to the brain?". Journal of the Association of Physicians of India. 38 (6): 444–445. PMID 2384469. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  53. ↑ Barak, Segev (September 13, 2006). "Scopolamine Induces Disruption of Latent Inhibition Which is Prevented by Antipsychotic Drugs and an Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor". Neuropsychopharmacology. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301208. PMID 16971898. Retrieved 2006-10-15. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  54. ↑ Kurzbaum, Alberto (2001). "Toxic Delirium due to Datura Stramonium" (PDF). Israel Medical Association Journal. 3 (7): 538–539. PMID 11791426. Retrieved 2006-10-17. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  55. ↑ Ettinger AB. "Psychotropic effects of antiepileptic drugs". Neurology. 2006 Dec 12;67(11):1916-25.
  56. ↑ http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=3060884 Psychiatric side effects attributed to phenylpropanolamine, Pharmacopsychiatry 1988 Jul; 21(4):171-81
  57. ↑ Brady, K. T. (1991). "Cocaine-induced psychosis". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 52 (12): 509–512. PMID 1752853. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ↑ Reynolds, Lindsay M. (March 1, 2005). "Chronic phencyclidine administration induces schizophrenia-like changes in N-acetylaspartate and N-acetylaspartylglutamate in rat brain". Schizophrenia Research. 73 (2–3): 147–152. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.02.003. PMID 15653257. Retrieved 2006-09-29. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  59. ↑ Degenhardt, L (2003). "Editorial: The link between cannabis use and psychosis: furthering the debate". Psychological Medicine. PubMed. 33: 3–6. PMID 12537030. Retrieved 2006-08-19. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  60. ↑ Template:Cite paper

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