Prostate cancer risk factors: Difference between revisions

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* African American
* African American


===Dietary===
* Higher meat consumption
While some dietary factors have been associated with prostate cancer the evidence is still tentative.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Venkateswaran V, Klotz LH | title = Diet and prostate cancer: mechanisms of action and implications for chemoprevention | journal = Nature Reviews Urology | volume = 7 | issue = 8 | pages = 442–53 | date = Aug 2010 | pmid = 20647991 | doi = 10.1038/nrurol.2010.102 }}</ref> Evidence supports little role for dietary fruits and vegetables in prostate cancer occurrence.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Key TJ | title = Fruit and vegetables and cancer risk | journal = British journal of cancer | volume = 104 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–11 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21119663 | pmc = 3039795 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6606032 | quote = For other common cancers, including colorectal, breast and prostate cancer, epidemiological studies suggest little or no association between total fruit and vegetable consumption and risk. }}</ref> Red meat and processed meat also appear to have little effect in human studies.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alexander DD, Mink PJ, Cushing CA, Sceurman B | title = A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat intake and prostate cancer | journal = Nutrition journal | volume = 9 | issue =  | pages = 50 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21044319 | pmc = 2987772 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2891-9-50 }}</ref> Higher meat consumption has been associated with a higher risk in some studies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats|work=National Cancer Institute}}</ref>
* Lower [[blood]] levels of [[vitamin D]]
 
Lower [[blood]] levels of [[vitamin D]] may increase the risk of developing prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wigle DT, Turner MC, Gomes J, Parent ME | title = Role of hormonal and other factors in human prostate cancer | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews | volume = 11 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 242–59 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18368555 | doi = 10.1080/10937400701873548 }}</ref><!-- OFF TOPIC[[Green tea]] may be protective (due to its [[Tea catechins|catechins]] content),<ref name="pmid16613539">{{cite journal | author = Lee AH, Fraser ML, Meng X, Binns CW | title = Protective effects of green tea against prostate cancer | journal = Expert Rev Anticancer Ther | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 507–13 |date=April 2006 | pmid = 16613539 | doi = 10.1586/14737140.6.4.507 }}</ref> although the most comprehensive clinical study indicates that it has no protective effect.<ref name="pmid16804523">{{cite journal | author = Kikuchi N, Ohmori K, Shimazu T, Nakaya N, Kuriyama S, Nishino Y, Tsubono Y, Tsuji I | title = No association between green tea and prostate cancer risk in Japanese men: the Ohsaki Cohort Study | journal = Br. J. Cancer | volume = 95 | issue = 3 | pages = 371–3 |date=August 2006 | pmid = 16804523 | pmc = 2360636 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603230 }}</ref> Other holistic methods are also studied.<ref name=Katz>{{Cite book|last=Katz |first=Aaron |authorlink=http://www.holisticurology.columbia.edu/_physicians/Katz.html |title=Guide to Prostate Health: From Conventional to Holistic Therapies |publisher=Freedom Press |year=2006 |isbn=1-893910-37-7}}</ref> Higher [[selenium]] blood levels have been associated with a lower risk of prostate cancer,<ref name="pmid22648711">{{cite journal | author = Hurst R, Hooper L, Norat T, Lau R, Aune D, Greenwood DC, Vieira R, Collings R, Harvey LJ, Sterne JA, Beynon R, Savović J, Fairweather-Tait SJ | title = Selenium and prostate cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 96 | issue = 1 | pages = 111–22 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22648711 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.111.033373 }}</ref> a trial of supplementation however did not find benefit.<ref>{{cite book|last=Research|first=World Cancer Research Fund ; American Institute for Cancer|title=Policy and action for cancer prevention : food, nutrition, and physical activity : a global perspective|year=2007|publisher=American Institute for Cancer Research|location=Washington, D.C|isbn=978-0-9722522-4-9|pages=150}}</ref>-->
 
[[Folic acid]] [[Dietary supplement|supplements]] have no effect on the risk of developing prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Qin X, Cui Y, Shen L, Sun N, Zhang Y, Li J, Xu X, Wang B, Xu X, Huo Y, Wang X | title = Folic acid supplementation and cancer risk: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | journal = International Journal of Cancer. Journal International Du Cancer | volume = 133 | issue = 5 | pages = 1033–41 | date = Jan 22, 2013 | pmid = 23338728 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.28038 }}</ref>


===Medication exposure===
===Medication exposure===

Revision as of 19:44, 15 September 2015

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

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Overview

Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer are dietary, lifestyle, family history, African-American men, occupational factors, age, environmental factors, and medication.

Risk Factors

Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer include:

  • Family history
  • African American

Medication exposure

There are also some links between prostate cancer and medications, medical procedures, and medical conditions.[1] Use of the cholesterol-lowering drugs known as the statins may also decrease prostate cancer risk.[2]

Infection or inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) may increase the chance for prostate cancer while another study shows infection may help prevent prostate cancer by increasing blood to the area. In particular, infection with the sexually transmitted infections chlamydia, gonorrhea, or syphilis seems to increase risk.[3] Finally, obesity[4] and elevated blood levels of testosterone[5] may increase the risk for prostate cancer. There is an association between vasectomy and prostate cancer however more research is needed to determine if this is a causative relationship.[6]

Research released in May 2007, found that US war veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange had a 48% increased risk of prostate cancer recurrence following surgery.[7]

Infectious disease

An association with gonorrhea has been found, but a mechanism for this relationship has not been identified.[8]

In 2006, a previously unknown retrovirus, Xenotropic MuLV-related virus or XMRV, was associated with human prostate tumors,[9] but subsequent reports on the virus were contradictory,[10][11] and the original 2006 finding was instead due to a previously undetected contamination.[12] The journals Science and PlosONE both retracted XMRV related articles.[13][14]

Sexual factors

Several case-control studies have shown that having many lifetime sexual partners or starting sexual activity early in life substantially increases the risk of prostate cancer.[15][16][17]

While the available evidence is weak,[18] tentative results suggest that frequent ejaculation may decrease the risk of prostate cancer.[19] A study, over eight years, showed that those that ejaculated most frequently (over 21 times per month on average) were less likely to get prostate cancer.[20] The results were broadly similar to the findings of a smaller Australian study.[21]


References

  1. ↑ Jacobs EJ, Rodriguez C, Mondul AM, Connell CJ, Henley SJ, Calle EE, Thun MJ (July 2005). "A large cohort study of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and prostate cancer incidence". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97 (13): 975–80. doi:10.1093/jnci/dji173. PMID 15998950.
  2. ↑ Shannon J, Tewoderos S, Garzotto M, Beer TM, Derenick R, Palma A, Farris PE (August 2005). "Statins and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 162 (4): 318–25. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi203. PMID 16014776.
  3. ↑ Dennis LK, Lynch CF, Torner JC (July 2002). "Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer". Urology. 60 (1): 78–83. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(02)01637-0. PMID 12100928.
  4. ↑ Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ (April 2003). "Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults". N. Engl. J. Med. 348 (17): 1625–38. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa021423. PMID 12711737.
  5. ↑ Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ (August 1996). "Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 88 (16): 1118–26. doi:10.1093/jnci/88.16.1118. PMID 8757191.
  6. ↑ "?". Retrieved 9 August 2010.
  7. ↑ "Veterans exposed to Agent Orange have higher rates of prostate cancer recurrence". Medical College of Georgia News. May 20, 2007.
  8. ↑ Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named CainiGandini2014
  9. ↑ Urisman A, Molinaro RJ, Fischer N, Plummer SJ, Casey G, Klein EA, Malathi K, Magi-Galluzzi C, Tubbs RR, Ganem D, Silverman RH, DeRisi JL (March 2006). "Identification of a Novel Gammaretrovirus in Prostate Tumors of Patients Homozygous for R462Q RNASEL Variant". PLoS Pathog. 2 (3): e25. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0020025. PMC 1434790. PMID 16609730. open access publication – free to read
  10. ↑ Schlaberg R, Choe DJ, Brown KR, Thaker HM, Singh IR (September 2009). "XMRV is present in malignant prostatic epithelium and is associated with prostate cancer, especially high-grade tumors". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 (38): 16351–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906922106. PMC 2739868. PMID 19805305.
  11. ↑ Hohn O, Krause H, Barbarotto P, Niederstadt L, Beimforde N, Denner J, Miller K, Kurth R, Bannert N (2009). "Lack of evidence for xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) in German prostate cancer patients". Retrovirology. 6: 92. doi:10.1186/1742-4690-6-92. PMC 2770519. PMID 19835577.
  12. ↑ Lee D, Das Gupta J, Gaughan C, Steffen I, Tang N, Luk KC, Qiu X, Urisman A, Fischer N, Molinaro R, Broz M, Schochetman G, Klein EA, Ganem D, Derisi JL, Simmons G, Hackett J, Silverman RH, Chiu CY (2012). Tachedjian, Gilda, ed. "In-Depth Investigation of Archival and Prospectively Collected Samples Reveals No Evidence for XMRV Infection in Prostate Cancer". PLoS ONE. 7 (9): e44954. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044954. PMC 3445615. PMID 23028701. open access publication – free to read
  13. ↑ Alberts B (Dec 23, 2011). "Retraction". Science. 334 (6063): 1636. doi:10.1126/science.334.6063.1636-a. PMID 22194552. open access publication – free to read
  14. ↑ Ross, Susan, ed. (September 2012). "Retraction. Identification of a novel gammaretrovirus in prostate tumors of patients homozygous for R462Q RNASEL variant". PLoS Pathogens. 8 (9): 10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01–2e9b–4e9b–aef0–87ab0e4e4732. doi:10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01-2e9b-4e9b-aef0-87ab0e4e4732. PMC 3445601. PMID 23028303. open access publication – free to read
  15. ↑ Dennis LK, Dawson DV (January 2002). "Meta-analysis of measures of sexual activity and prostate cancer". Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.). 13 (1): 72–9. doi:10.1097/00001648-200201000-00012. PMID 11805589.
  16. ↑ Rosenblatt KA, Wicklund KG, Stanford JL (Jun 15, 2001). "Sexual factors and the risk of prostate cancer". American Journal of Epidemiology. 153 (12): 1152–8. doi:10.1093/aje/153.12.1152. PMID 11415949.
  17. ↑ Sarma AV, McLaughlin JC, Wallner LP, Dunn RL, Cooney KA, Schottenfeld D, Montie JE, Wei JT (September 2006). "Sexual behavior, sexually transmitted diseases and prostatitis: the risk of prostate cancer in black men". The Journal of Urology. 176 (3): 1108–13. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.04.075. PMID 16890703.
  18. ↑ Male Reproductive Cancers. Springer New York. 2010. p. 27. ISBN 9781441904508.
  19. ↑ Scardino, Peter (2005). Comprehensive textbook of genitourinary oncology (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 16. ISBN 9780781749848.
  20. ↑ Leitzmann, MF; Platz, EA; Stampfer, MJ; Willett, WC; Giovannucci, E (7 April 2004). "Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer". JAMA. 291 (13): 1578–86. doi:10.1001/jama.291.13.1578. PMID 15069045.
  21. ↑ Giles, GG; Severi, G; English, DR; McCredie, MR; Borland, R; Boyle, P; Hopper, JL (August 2003). "Sexual factors and prostate cancer". BJU international. 92 (3): 211–6. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.2003.04319.x. PMID 12887469.

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