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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
The '''myelodysplastic syndromes''' was first described in 1900 by Leube.<ref name="Nimer2008">{{cite journal|last1=Nimer|first1=S. D.|title=Myelodysplastic syndromes|journal=Blood|volume=111|issue=10|year=2008|pages=4841–4851|issn=0006-4971|doi=10.1182/blood-2007-08-078139}}</ref> Myelodysplastic syndromes may be classified into several subtypes based on [[French-American-British classification|French-American-British (FAB) classification]] and [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) classification | The '''myelodysplastic syndromes''' was first described in 1900 by Leube.<ref name="Nimer2008">{{cite journal|last1=Nimer|first1=S. D.|title=Myelodysplastic syndromes|journal=Blood|volume=111|issue=10|year=2008|pages=4841–4851|issn=0006-4971|doi=10.1182/blood-2007-08-078139}}</ref> Myelodysplastic syndromes may be classified into several subtypes based on the [[French-American-British classification|French-American-British (FAB) classification]] and the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) classification methods.<ref name=radiopaedia>Classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Radiopaedia (2015). http://radiopaedia.org/articles/myelodysplastic-syndrome. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref><ref name=cancergov2>Pathologic systems of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq/#link/_204_toc. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref><ref name=wikipedia>French-American-British (FAB) classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref><ref name=wikiWHO>World Health Organization classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> Cytogenetic abnormalities involved in the pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndrome include isolated deletion of 5q, monosomy 7, and monosomy 8.<ref name=Librepathology2>Cytogenetics of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> Myelodysplastic syndrome is associated with [[Fanconi syndrome]], [[Diamond-Blackfan syndrome|Diamond-Blackfan anemia]], [[Shwachman-Diamond syndrome]].<ref name=Librepathology1>Associations of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> There are no characteristic findings of myelodysplastic syndrome on gross pathology. On microscopic histopathological analysis, [[dyserythropoiesis]], dysgranulopoiesis, and dysmegakaryocytopoiesis are findings of myelodysplastic syndrome.<ref name=Librepathology2>Histologic features of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> There are no known direct causes for primary myelodysplastic syndrome. Common risk factors for secondary myelodysplastic syndrome can be found [[Myelodysplastic syndrome risk factors|'''here''']].<ref name=cancerca>Risk factors of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/leukemia/leukemia/myelodysplastic-syndromes/?region=on. Accessed on December 16, 2015</ref><ref name=cancergov>Risk factors of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/liver/hp/child-liver-treatment-pdq#link/_570_toc. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref> Myelodysplastic syndrome must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [[anemia]], [[neutropenia]], and [[thrombocytopenia]], such as: [[aplastic anemia]], [[fanconi anemia]], [[pure red cell aplasia]], [[Shwachman-Diamond syndrome]], [[paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria]], [[parvovirus B19|parovirus B19 infection]], and [[Vitamin B12|vitamin B12 defeciency]].<ref name=Librepathology3>Differential diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 9, 2015</ref><ref name="MerrillSmith2011">{{cite journal|last1=Merrill|first1=Andrea L.|last2=Smith|first2=Hedy|title=Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Autoimmunity: A Case Report of an Unusual Presentation of Myelodysplastic Syndrome|journal=Case Reports in Hematology|volume=2011|year=2011|pages=1–4|issn=2090-6560|doi=10.1155/2011/560106}}</ref><ref name="DeZernSekeres2014">{{cite journal|last1=DeZern|first1=A. E.|last2=Sekeres|first2=M. A.|title=The Challenging World of Cytopenias: Distinguishing Myelodysplastic Syndromes From Other Disorders of Marrow Failure|journal=The Oncologist|volume=19|issue=7|year=2014|pages=735–745|issn=1083-7159|doi=10.1634/theoncologist.2014-0056}}</ref> The incidence of myelodysplastic syndrome is approximately 4.4 to 4.6 cases per 100,000 individuals in the United States.<ref name=cancergov>Incidence and mortality of myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq#link/_291_toc. Accessed on December 3, 2015</ref> Myelodysplastic syndrome commonly affects older patients.<ref name=cancergov>Clinical features of myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq#link/_291_toc. Accessed on December 3, 2015</ref> Males are more commonly affected with myelodysplastic syndrome than females.<ref name=cancergov>Incidence and mortality of myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq#link/_291_toc. Accessed on December 3, 2015</ref> Myelodysplastic syndrome usually affects individuals of the Caucasian race.<ref name=cancergov>Incidence and mortality of myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq#link/_291_toc. Accessed on December 3, 2015</ref> Common risk factors in the development of myelodysplastic syndrome are past treatment with [[chemotherapy]], [[radiation therapy]], past exposure to [[tobacco smoke]], [[ionizing radiation]], [[organic chemicals]], and [[heavy metals]].<ref name=cancergov>Risk factors of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/liver/hp/child-liver-treatment-pdq#link/_570_toc. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref> If left untreated, a high percentage of patients with myelodysplastic syndrome may progress to develop [[acute myeloid leukemia]] or die due to [[bone marrow failure]].<ref name="NatelsonPyatt2013">{{cite journal|last1=Natelson|first1=Ethan A.|last2=Pyatt|first2=David|title=Acquired Myelodysplasia or Myelodysplastic Syndrome: Clearing the Fog|journal=Advances in Hematology|volume=2013|year=2013|pages=1–11|issn=1687-9104|doi=10.1155/2013/309637}}</ref> Common complications of myelodysplasia include progression to acute myeloid leukemia, bone marrow failure, [[infection]], [[hemorrhage]], and [[iron overload]].<ref name="NatelsonPyatt2013">{{cite journal|last1=Natelson|first1=Ethan A.|last2=Pyatt|first2=David|title=Acquired Myelodysplasia or Myelodysplastic Syndrome: Clearing the Fog|journal=Advances in Hematology|volume=2013|year=2013|pages=1–11|issn=1687-9104|doi=10.1155/2013/309637}}</ref> [[Prognosis]] is generally poor, and the 5-year survival rate of patients with high IPSS score myelodysplastic syndrome is approximately 55%.<ref name=cancergov3>Prognostic Scoring Systems of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq/#link/_204_toc. Accessed on December 11, 2015</ref> Symptoms of myelodysplastic syndrome include [[bleeding]], [[easy bruising]], [[shortness of breath]], [[weakness]], and [[fatigue]].<ref name=cancergov>Clinical features of myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq#link/_291_toc. Accessed on December 3, 2015</ref><ref name="MerrillSmith2011">{{cite journal|last1=Merrill|first1=Andrea L.|last2=Smith|first2=Hedy|title=Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Autoimmunity: A Case Report of an Unusual Presentation of Myelodysplastic Syndrome|journal=Case Reports in Hematology|volume=2011|year=2011|pages=1–4|issn=2090-6560|doi=10.1155/2011/560106}}</ref> Common physical examination findings of myelodysplastic syndrome include [[pallor]], [[hepatomegaly]], [[splenomegaly]], [[lymphadenopathy]], [[fever]], and [[petechiae]].<ref name=cancergov4>Clinical features of myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/patient/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq. Accessed on December 13, 2015</ref> Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndrome include abnormal [[complete blood count]], [[peripheral blood smear]], cytogenetic analysis, [[immunohistochemistry]], and [[bone marrow biopsy]].<ref name=cancergov5>Tests to examine and diagnose myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/patient/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq. Accessed on December 14, 2015</ref><ref name=Macrocytosis>Causes of macrocytosis. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrocytosis. Accessed on December 14, 2015</ref><ref name=Basophilic>Basophilic stippling. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basophilic_stippling. Accessed on December 14, 2015</ref><ref name=Howell>Causes of Howell-Jolly body. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howell%E2%80%93Jolly_body. Accessed on December 14, 2015</ref><ref name=Pseudopelger>Acquired or pseudo-Pelger-Huët anomaly. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelger%E2%80%93Huet_anomaly. Accessed on December 14, 2015</ref><ref name=Librepathology2>Cytogenetics of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref><ref name="Haase2008">{{cite journal|last1=Haase|first1=Detlef|title=Cytogenetic features in myelodysplastic syndromes|journal=Annals of Hematology|volume=87|issue=7|year=2008|pages=515–526|issn=0939-5555|doi=10.1007/s00277-008-0483-y}}</ref><ref name="TricotWolf-Peeters1984">{{cite journal|last1=Tricot|first1=G.|last2=Wolf-Peeters|first2=C. De|last3=Hendrickx|first3=B.|last4=Verwilghen|first4=R. L.|title=Bone marrow histology in myelodysplastic syndromes.|journal=British Journal of Haematology|volume=57|issue=3|year=1984|pages=423–430|issn=0007-1048|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2141.1984.tb02916.x}}</ref> Chemotherapy is recommended among all patients who develop myelodysplastic syndrome.<ref name=cancerca>Treatment of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/leukemia/leukemia/myelodysplastic-syndromes/?region=on. Accessed on December 15, 2015</ref> Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with myelodysplastic syndrome. Stem cell transplantation is usually reserved for patients who are either young or those with high-risk MDS.<ref name=cancerca>Treatment of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/leukemia/leukemia/myelodysplastic-syndromes/?region=on. Accessed on December 15, 2015</ref> | ||
==Historical Perspective== | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
Myelodysplastic syndrome was first described in 1900 by Leube.<ref name="Nimer2008">{{cite journal|last1=Nimer|first1=S. D.|title=Myelodysplastic syndromes|journal=Blood|volume=111|issue=10|year=2008|pages=4841–4851|issn=0006-4971|doi=10.1182/blood-2007-08-078139}}</ref> | Myelodysplastic syndrome was first described in 1900 by Leube.<ref name="Nimer2008">{{cite journal|last1=Nimer|first1=S. D.|title=Myelodysplastic syndromes|journal=Blood|volume=111|issue=10|year=2008|pages=4841–4851|issn=0006-4971|doi=10.1182/blood-2007-08-078139}}</ref> | ||
==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
Myelodysplastic syndrome may be classified into several subtypes based on [[French-American-British classification|French-American-British (FAB) classification]] and [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) classification | Myelodysplastic syndrome may be classified into several subtypes based on the [[French-American-British classification|French-American-British (FAB) classification]] and the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) classification methods.<ref name=radiopaedia>Classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Radiopaedia (2015). http://radiopaedia.org/articles/myelodysplastic-syndrome. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref><ref name=cancergov2>Pathologic systems of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq/#link/_204_toc. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref><ref name=wikipedia>French-American-British (FAB) classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome. Accessed on December 7, 2015</ref><ref name=wikiWHO>World Health Organization classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
Cytogenetic abnormalities involved in the pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndrome include isolated deletion of 5q, monosomy 7, and monosomy 8.<ref name=Librepathology2>Cytogenetics of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> Myelodysplastic syndrome is associated with [[Fanconi syndrome]], [[Diamond-Blackfan syndrome|Diamond-Blackfan anemia]], [[Shwachman-Diamond syndrome]].<ref name=Librepathology1>Associations of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> There are no characteristic findings of myelodysplastic syndrome on gross pathology. On microscopic histopathological analysis, [[dyserythropoiesis]], dysgranulopoiesis, and dysmegakaryocytopoiesis are findings of myelodysplastic syndrome.<ref name=Librepathology2>Histologic features of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> | Cytogenetic abnormalities involved in the pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndrome include isolated deletion of 5q, monosomy 7, and monosomy 8.<ref name=Librepathology2>Cytogenetics of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> Myelodysplastic syndrome is associated with [[Fanconi syndrome]], [[Diamond-Blackfan syndrome|Diamond-Blackfan anemia]], [[Shwachman-Diamond syndrome]].<ref name=Librepathology1>Associations of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> There are no characteristic findings of myelodysplastic syndrome on gross pathology. On microscopic histopathological analysis, [[dyserythropoiesis]], dysgranulopoiesis, and dysmegakaryocytopoiesis are findings of myelodysplastic syndrome.<ref name=Librepathology2>Histologic features of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015</ref> | ||
Revision as of 21:38, 16 December 2015
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Myelodysplastic syndrome Microchapters |
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Differentiating Myelodysplastic syndrome from other Diseases |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Case Studies |
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Myelodysplastic syndrome overview On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Myelodysplastic syndrome overview |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Myelodysplastic syndrome overview |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Nawal Muazam M.D.[2]
Overview
The myelodysplastic syndromes was first described in 1900 by Leube.[1] Myelodysplastic syndromes may be classified into several subtypes based on the French-American-British (FAB) classification and the World Health Organization (WHO) classification methods.[2][3][4][5] Cytogenetic abnormalities involved in the pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndrome include isolated deletion of 5q, monosomy 7, and monosomy 8.[6] Myelodysplastic syndrome is associated with Fanconi syndrome, Diamond-Blackfan anemia, Shwachman-Diamond syndrome.[7] There are no characteristic findings of myelodysplastic syndrome on gross pathology. On microscopic histopathological analysis, dyserythropoiesis, dysgranulopoiesis, and dysmegakaryocytopoiesis are findings of myelodysplastic syndrome.[6] There are no known direct causes for primary myelodysplastic syndrome. Common risk factors for secondary myelodysplastic syndrome can be found here.[8][9] Myelodysplastic syndrome must be differentiated from other diseases that cause anemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia, such as: aplastic anemia, fanconi anemia, pure red cell aplasia, Shwachman-Diamond syndrome, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, parovirus B19 infection, and vitamin B12 defeciency.[10][11][12] The incidence of myelodysplastic syndrome is approximately 4.4 to 4.6 cases per 100,000 individuals in the United States.[9] Myelodysplastic syndrome commonly affects older patients.[9] Males are more commonly affected with myelodysplastic syndrome than females.[9] Myelodysplastic syndrome usually affects individuals of the Caucasian race.[9] Common risk factors in the development of myelodysplastic syndrome are past treatment with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, past exposure to tobacco smoke, ionizing radiation, organic chemicals, and heavy metals.[9] If left untreated, a high percentage of patients with myelodysplastic syndrome may progress to develop acute myeloid leukemia or die due to bone marrow failure.[13] Common complications of myelodysplasia include progression to acute myeloid leukemia, bone marrow failure, infection, hemorrhage, and iron overload.[13] Prognosis is generally poor, and the 5-year survival rate of patients with high IPSS score myelodysplastic syndrome is approximately 55%.[14] Symptoms of myelodysplastic syndrome include bleeding, easy bruising, shortness of breath, weakness, and fatigue.[9][11] Common physical examination findings of myelodysplastic syndrome include pallor, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, fever, and petechiae.[15] Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndrome include abnormal complete blood count, peripheral blood smear, cytogenetic analysis, immunohistochemistry, and bone marrow biopsy.[16][17][18][19][20][6][21][22] Chemotherapy is recommended among all patients who develop myelodysplastic syndrome.[8] Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with myelodysplastic syndrome. Stem cell transplantation is usually reserved for patients who are either young or those with high-risk MDS.[8]
Historical Perspective
Myelodysplastic syndrome was first described in 1900 by Leube.[1]
Classification
Myelodysplastic syndrome may be classified into several subtypes based on the French-American-British (FAB) classification and the World Health Organization (WHO) classification methods.[2][3][4][5]
Pathophysiology
Cytogenetic abnormalities involved in the pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndrome include isolated deletion of 5q, monosomy 7, and monosomy 8.[6] Myelodysplastic syndrome is associated with Fanconi syndrome, Diamond-Blackfan anemia, Shwachman-Diamond syndrome.[7] There are no characteristic findings of myelodysplastic syndrome on gross pathology. On microscopic histopathological analysis, dyserythropoiesis, dysgranulopoiesis, and dysmegakaryocytopoiesis are findings of myelodysplastic syndrome.[6]
Causes
There are no known direct causes for primary myelodysplastic syndrome. Common risk factors for secondary myelodysplastic syndrome can be found here.[8]
Differentiating Myelodysplastic syndrome from other Diseases
Myelodysplastic syndrome must be differentiated from other diseases that cause anemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia, such as: aplastic anemia, fanconi anemia, pure red cell aplasia, Shwachman-Diamond syndrome, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, parovirus B19 infection, and vitamin B12 defeciency.[10][11][12]
Epidemiology and Demographics
The incidence of myelodysplastic syndrome is approximately 4.4 to 4.6 cases per 100,000 individuals in the United States.[9] Myelodysplastic syndrome commonly affects older patients.[9] Males are more commonly affected with myelodysplastic syndrome than females.[9] Myelodysplastic syndrome usually affects individuals of the Caucasian race.[9]
Risk Factors
Common risk factors in the development of myelodysplastic syndrome are past treatment with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, past exposure to tobacco smoke, ionizing radiation, organic chemicals, and heavy metals.[9]
Screening
According to the United States Preventive Services Task Force, there is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for myelodysplastic syndrome.[23]
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
If left untreated, a high percentage of patients with myelodysplastic syndrome may progress to develop acute myeloid leukemia or die due to bone marrow failure.[13] Common complications of myelodysplasia include progression to acute myeloid leukemia, bone marrow failure, infection, hemorrhage, and iron overload.[13] Prognosis is generally poor, and the 5-year survival rate of patients with high IPSS score myelodysplastic syndrome is approximately 55%.[14]
Diagnosis
History and symptoms
Symptoms of myelodysplastic syndrome include bleeding, easy bruising, shortness of breath, weakness, and fatigue.[9][11]
Physical Examination
Common physical examination findings of myelodysplastic syndrome include pallor, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, fever, and petechiae.[15]
Laboratory Findings
Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndrome include abnormal complete blood count, peripheral blood smear, cytogenetic analysis, immunohistochemistry, and bone marrow biopsy.[16][17][18][19][20][6][21][22]
CT
CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndrome. Findings on CT scan of the spine suggestive of myelodysplastic syndrome include osteosclerosis and myelosclerosis.[24]
MRI
Bone marrow MRI is helpful in the diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndrome. On MRI, myelodysplastic syndrome is characterized by low signal on T1-weighted imaging and high signal on T2-weighted imaging.[2]
Other Imaging Findings
There are no other imaging findings associated with myelodysplastic syndrome.
Other Diagnostic Studies
Other diagnostic studies for myelodysplastic syndrome include bone marrow biopsy.[22]
Treatment
Medical therapy
Chemotherapy is recommended among all patients who develop myelodysplastic syndrome.[8]
Surgery
Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with myelodysplastic syndrome. Stem cell transplantation is usually reserved for patients who are either young or those with high-risk MDS.[8]
Primary Prevention
Effective measures for the primary prevention of myelodysplastic syndrome include avoiding exposure to tobacco smoke, ionizing radiation, herbicides, and pesticides.[9]
Secondary Prevention
There are no secondary preventive measures available for myelodysplastic syndrome.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Nimer, S. D. (2008). "Myelodysplastic syndromes". Blood. 111 (10): 4841–4851. doi:10.1182/blood-2007-08-078139. ISSN 0006-4971.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Radiopaedia (2015). http://radiopaedia.org/articles/myelodysplastic-syndrome. Accessed on December 7, 2015
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Pathologic systems of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq/#link/_204_toc. Accessed on December 7, 2015
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 French-American-British (FAB) classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome. Accessed on December 7, 2015
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 World Health Organization classification of myelodysplastic syndrome. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome. Accessed on December 8, 2015
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Cytogenetics of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Associations of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 8, 2015
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Risk factors of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/leukemia/leukemia/myelodysplastic-syndromes/?region=on. Accessed on December 16, 2015
- ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 Risk factors of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/liver/hp/child-liver-treatment-pdq#link/_570_toc. Accessed on December 7, 2015
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Differential diagnosis of myelodysplastic syndromes. Librepathology (2015). http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Myelodysplastic_syndromes. Accessed on December 9, 2015
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Merrill, Andrea L.; Smith, Hedy (2011). "Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Autoimmunity: A Case Report of an Unusual Presentation of Myelodysplastic Syndrome". Case Reports in Hematology. 2011: 1–4. doi:10.1155/2011/560106. ISSN 2090-6560.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 DeZern, A. E.; Sekeres, M. A. (2014). "The Challenging World of Cytopenias: Distinguishing Myelodysplastic Syndromes From Other Disorders of Marrow Failure". The Oncologist. 19 (7): 735–745. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2014-0056. ISSN 1083-7159.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Natelson, Ethan A.; Pyatt, David (2013). "Acquired Myelodysplasia or Myelodysplastic Syndrome: Clearing the Fog". Advances in Hematology. 2013: 1–11. doi:10.1155/2013/309637. ISSN 1687-9104.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Prognostic Scoring Systems of myelodysplastic syndrome. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/hp/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq/#link/_204_toc. Accessed on December 11, 2015
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Clinical features of myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute (2015). http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/patient/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq. Accessed on December 13, 2015
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Tests to examine and diagnose myelodysplastic syndromes. National Cancer Institute 2015. http://www.cancer.gov/types/myeloproliferative/patient/myelodysplastic-treatment-pdq. Accessed on December 14, 2015
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Causes of macrocytosis. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrocytosis. Accessed on December 14, 2015
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Basophilic stippling. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basophilic_stippling. Accessed on December 14, 2015
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Causes of Howell-Jolly body. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howell%E2%80%93Jolly_body. Accessed on December 14, 2015
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Acquired or pseudo-Pelger-Huët anomaly. Wikipedia (2015). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelger%E2%80%93Huet_anomaly. Accessed on December 14, 2015
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Haase, Detlef (2008). "Cytogenetic features in myelodysplastic syndromes". Annals of Hematology. 87 (7): 515–526. doi:10.1007/s00277-008-0483-y. ISSN 0939-5555.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Tricot, G.; Wolf-Peeters, C. De; Hendrickx, B.; Verwilghen, R. L. (1984). "Bone marrow histology in myelodysplastic syndromes". British Journal of Haematology. 57 (3): 423–430. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.1984.tb02916.x. ISSN 0007-1048.
- ↑ Myelodysplastic syndrome. USPSTF. http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/BrowseRec/Search?s=myelodysplastic+syndrome Accessed on December 9, 2015
- ↑ CT scan of myelodysplastic syndrome with osteomyelosclerosis. Dr Björn Jobke. Radiopaedia (2015). http://radiopaedia.org/cases/myelodysplastic-syndrome-with-osteomyelosclerosis. Accessed on December 14, 2015