Trichomoniasis overview: Difference between revisions
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== Overview == | == Overview == | ||
Trichomoniasis is a common [[sexually transmitted disease]] that affects 7.4 million previously unaffected Americans each year. Trichomonas vaginalis was first discovered by Dr. Alfred François Donné, a French physician, in 1836.<ref name="pmid4138951">{{cite journal| author=Thorburn AL| title=Alfred François Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer of Trichomonas vaginalis and of leukaemia. | journal=Br J Vener Dis | year= 1974 | volume= 50 | issue= 5 | pages= 377-80 | pmid=4138951 | doi= | pmc=PMC1045069 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4138951 }} </ref> ''Trichomonas vaginalis'' is an [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]], [[flagellate]]d [[protozoan]] parasite and the causative agent of [[trichomoniasis]].<ref name=abc> Trichomonas vaginalis. Wikipedia.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichomonas_vaginalis Accessed on January 26, 2016</ref> The parasite is [[sexually transmitted]] through contact with an infected partner. Women can acquire the disease from infected men or women, but men usually contract it only from infected women.<ref name="urlSTD Facts - Trichomoniasis">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/STDFact-Trichomoniasis.htm |title=STD Facts - Trichomoniasis |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-12-27}}</ref><ref name="urlDPDx - Trichomoniasis">{{cite web |url=http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Trichomoniasis.htm |title=DPDx - Trichomoniasis |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-12-27}}</ref> Trichomoniasis is primarily an infection of the [[genitourinary tract]]. The [[urethra]] is the most common site of infection in men, and the [[vagina]] is the most common site of infection in women. Trichomoniasis must be differentiated from other causes of [[vaginitis]] such as [[bacterial vaginosis]], vulvovaginal [[candidiasis]], and [[atrophic vaginitis]].<ref name="pmid21524046">{{cite journal| author=Hainer BL, Gibson MV| title=Vaginitis. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2011 | volume= 83 | issue= 7 | pages= 807-15 | pmid=21524046 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21524046 }} </ref> In 2008, the incidence of trichomoniasis was estimated to be 358 cases per 100,000 individuals in the United States.<ref name=cde> Incidence, Prevalence, and Cost of Sexually | Trichomoniasis is a common [[sexually transmitted disease]] that affects 7.4 million previously unaffected Americans each year. Trichomonas vaginalis was first discovered by Dr. Alfred François Donné, a French physician, in 1836.<ref name="pmid4138951">{{cite journal| author=Thorburn AL| title=Alfred François Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer of Trichomonas vaginalis and of leukaemia. | journal=Br J Vener Dis | year= 1974 | volume= 50 | issue= 5 | pages= 377-80 | pmid=4138951 | doi= | pmc=PMC1045069 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4138951 }} </ref> ''Trichomonas vaginalis'' is an [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]], [[flagellate]]d [[protozoan]] parasite and the causative agent of [[trichomoniasis]].<ref name=abc> Trichomonas vaginalis. Wikipedia.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichomonas_vaginalis Accessed on January 26, 2016</ref> The parasite is [[sexually transmitted]] through contact with an infected partner. Women can acquire the disease from infected men or women, but men usually contract it only from infected women.<ref name="urlSTD Facts - Trichomoniasis">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/STDFact-Trichomoniasis.htm |title=STD Facts - Trichomoniasis |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-12-27}}</ref><ref name="urlDPDx - Trichomoniasis">{{cite web |url=http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Trichomoniasis.htm |title=DPDx - Trichomoniasis |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-12-27}}</ref> Trichomoniasis is primarily an infection of the [[genitourinary tract]]. The [[urethra]] is the most common site of infection in men, and the [[vagina]] is the most common site of infection in women. Trichomoniasis must be differentiated from other causes of [[vaginitis]] such as [[bacterial vaginosis]], vulvovaginal [[candidiasis]], and [[atrophic vaginitis]].<ref name="pmid21524046">{{cite journal| author=Hainer BL, Gibson MV| title=Vaginitis. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2011 | volume= 83 | issue= 7 | pages= 807-15 | pmid=21524046 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21524046 }} </ref> In 2008, the incidence of trichomoniasis was estimated to be 358 cases per 100,000 individuals in the United States.<ref name=cde> Incidence, Prevalence, and Cost of Sexually | ||
Transmitted Infections in the United States. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats/sti-estimates-fact-sheet-feb-2013.pdf Accessed on February 2, 2016</ref> Females are more commonly affected with trichomoniasis than males.<ref name=ccc> Trichomoniasis Statistics. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/stats.htm Accessed on January 26, 2016</ref> Trichomoniasis usually affects African American individuals. Caucasian individuals are less likely to develop trichomoniasis. In the United States, the highest prevalence of trichomonas infection in US women is seen among African-Americans with rates ranging from 13–51%.<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref> Common risk factors in the development of trichomoniasis include multiple sexual partners, unprotected sexual activity, intravenous drug use, and coexisting [[veneral disease]].<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref><ref name=aaa>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/STDFact-Trichomoniasis.htm |title= Trichomoniasis - CDC Fact Sheet|author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=12 January 2011}}</ref> If left untreated, women with trichomoniasis may progress to develop infection of the [[adnexa]], [[endometrium]], and Skene and Bartholin glands. In men, it can cause [[epididymitis]], [[prostatitis]], and decreased sperm cell motility.<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref> Complications of trichomoniasis include [[pelvic inflammatory disease]], increased risk of [[HIV]], increased risk of [[cervical cancer]], increased risk of [[prostate cancer]], and pregnancy related complications such as low birth weight, preterm delivery, and premature rupture of membranes. The prognosis of trichomoniasis is generally excellent with treatment.<ref name="pmid15054166">{{cite journal| author=Swygard H, Seña AC, Hobbs MM, Cohen MS| title=Trichomoniasis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management. | journal=Sex Transm Infect | year= 2004 | volume= 80 | issue= 2 | pages= 91-5 | pmid=15054166 | doi= | pmc=PMC1744792 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15054166 }} </ref> The majority of women (85%) and men (77%) with trichomoniasis are asymptomatic. One third of asymptomatic women become symptomatic within 6 months. Common symptoms of trichomoniasis in women include [[vaginal discharge]] (which is often diffuse, malodorous, and yellow-green or gray in color), painful urination ([[dysuria]]), vulvar irritation and itching, [[abdominal pain]] and discomfort during sexual intercourse.<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref> Symptoms of trichomoniasis in males include clear or mucopurulent [[urethral discharge]], painful urination, and [[pruritus]] or a burning sensation following sexual intercourse.<ref name=aaa>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/STDFact-Trichomoniasis.htm |title= Trichomoniasis - CDC Fact Sheet|author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=12 January 2011}}</ref> | Transmitted Infections in the United States. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats/sti-estimates-fact-sheet-feb-2013.pdf Accessed on February 2, 2016</ref> Females are more commonly affected with trichomoniasis than males.<ref name=ccc> Trichomoniasis Statistics. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/stats.htm Accessed on January 26, 2016</ref> Trichomoniasis usually affects African American individuals. Caucasian individuals are less likely to develop trichomoniasis. In the United States, the highest prevalence of trichomonas infection in US women is seen among African-Americans with rates ranging from 13–51%.<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref> Common risk factors in the development of trichomoniasis include multiple sexual partners, unprotected sexual activity, intravenous drug use, and coexisting [[veneral disease]].<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref><ref name=aaa>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/STDFact-Trichomoniasis.htm |title= Trichomoniasis - CDC Fact Sheet|author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=12 January 2011}}</ref> If left untreated, women with trichomoniasis may progress to develop infection of the [[adnexa]], [[endometrium]], and Skene and Bartholin glands. In men, it can cause [[epididymitis]], [[prostatitis]], and decreased sperm cell motility.<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref> Complications of trichomoniasis include [[pelvic inflammatory disease]], increased risk of [[HIV]], increased risk of [[cervical cancer]], increased risk of [[prostate cancer]], and pregnancy related complications such as low birth weight, preterm delivery, and premature rupture of membranes. The prognosis of trichomoniasis is generally excellent with treatment.<ref name="pmid15054166">{{cite journal| author=Swygard H, Seña AC, Hobbs MM, Cohen MS| title=Trichomoniasis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management. | journal=Sex Transm Infect | year= 2004 | volume= 80 | issue= 2 | pages= 91-5 | pmid=15054166 | doi= | pmc=PMC1744792 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15054166 }} </ref> The majority of women (85%) and men (77%) with trichomoniasis are asymptomatic. One third of asymptomatic women become symptomatic within 6 months. Common symptoms of trichomoniasis in women include [[vaginal discharge]] (which is often diffuse, malodorous, and yellow-green or gray in color), painful urination ([[dysuria]]), vulvar irritation and itching, [[abdominal pain]] and discomfort during sexual intercourse.<ref name="pmid26242185">{{cite journal| author=Kissinger P| title=Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 15 | issue= | pages= 307 | pmid=26242185 | doi=10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0 | pmc=PMC4525749 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26242185 }} </ref> Symptoms of trichomoniasis in males include clear or mucopurulent [[urethral discharge]], painful urination, and [[pruritus]] or a burning sensation following sexual intercourse.<ref name=aaa>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/STDFact-Trichomoniasis.htm |title= Trichomoniasis - CDC Fact Sheet|author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=12 January 2011}}</ref> Common physical examination findings of trichomoniasis include strawberry cervix and a foul-smelling, frothy, and mucopurulent green or gray vaginal discharge.<ref name="pmid23633669">{{cite journal| author=Hobbs MM, Seña AC| title=Modern diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection. | journal=Sex Transm Infect | year= 2013 | volume= 89 | issue= 6 | pages= 434-8 | pmid=23633669 | doi=10.1136/sextrans-2013-051057 | pmc=PMC3787709 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23633669 }} </ref><ref name=efg> Trichomonas vaginalis. Wikipedia.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichomonas_vaginalis Accessed on February 4, 2016</ref> In males, there may be scanty, mucopurulent urethral discharge.<ref name="pmid9564565">{{cite journal| author=Petrin D, Delgaty K, Bhatt R, Garber G| title=Clinical and microbiological aspects of Trichomonas vaginalis. | journal=Clin Microbiol Rev | year= 1998 | volume= 11 | issue= 2 | pages= 300-17 | pmid=9564565 | doi= | pmc=PMC106834 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9564565 }} </ref> | ||
==Historical Perspective== | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
Revision as of 20:39, 5 February 2016
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Maliha Shakil, M.D. [2]
Overview
Trichomoniasis is a common sexually transmitted disease that affects 7.4 million previously unaffected Americans each year. Trichomonas vaginalis was first discovered by Dr. Alfred François Donné, a French physician, in 1836.[1] Trichomonas vaginalis is an anaerobic, flagellated protozoan parasite and the causative agent of trichomoniasis.[2] The parasite is sexually transmitted through contact with an infected partner. Women can acquire the disease from infected men or women, but men usually contract it only from infected women.[3][4] Trichomoniasis is primarily an infection of the genitourinary tract. The urethra is the most common site of infection in men, and the vagina is the most common site of infection in women. Trichomoniasis must be differentiated from other causes of vaginitis such as bacterial vaginosis, vulvovaginal candidiasis, and atrophic vaginitis.[5] In 2008, the incidence of trichomoniasis was estimated to be 358 cases per 100,000 individuals in the United States.[6] Females are more commonly affected with trichomoniasis than males.[7] Trichomoniasis usually affects African American individuals. Caucasian individuals are less likely to develop trichomoniasis. In the United States, the highest prevalence of trichomonas infection in US women is seen among African-Americans with rates ranging from 13–51%.[8] Common risk factors in the development of trichomoniasis include multiple sexual partners, unprotected sexual activity, intravenous drug use, and coexisting veneral disease.[8][9] If left untreated, women with trichomoniasis may progress to develop infection of the adnexa, endometrium, and Skene and Bartholin glands. In men, it can cause epididymitis, prostatitis, and decreased sperm cell motility.[8] Complications of trichomoniasis include pelvic inflammatory disease, increased risk of HIV, increased risk of cervical cancer, increased risk of prostate cancer, and pregnancy related complications such as low birth weight, preterm delivery, and premature rupture of membranes. The prognosis of trichomoniasis is generally excellent with treatment.[10] The majority of women (85%) and men (77%) with trichomoniasis are asymptomatic. One third of asymptomatic women become symptomatic within 6 months. Common symptoms of trichomoniasis in women include vaginal discharge (which is often diffuse, malodorous, and yellow-green or gray in color), painful urination (dysuria), vulvar irritation and itching, abdominal pain and discomfort during sexual intercourse.[8] Symptoms of trichomoniasis in males include clear or mucopurulent urethral discharge, painful urination, and pruritus or a burning sensation following sexual intercourse.[9] Common physical examination findings of trichomoniasis include strawberry cervix and a foul-smelling, frothy, and mucopurulent green or gray vaginal discharge.[11][12] In males, there may be scanty, mucopurulent urethral discharge.[13]
Historical Perspective
Trichomonas vaginalis was first discovered by Dr. Alfred François Donné, a French physician, in 1836.[1]
Pathophysiology
Trichomonas vaginalis is an anaerobic, flagellated protozoan parasite and the causative agent of trichomoniasis.[2] The parasite is sexually transmitted through contact with an infected partner. Women can acquire the disease from infected men or women, but men usually contract it only from infected women.[3][4]
Causes
Trichomoniasis is caused by the single-celled protozoan parasite, Trichomonas vaginalis. The vagina is the most common site of infection in women, and the urethra is the most common site of infection in men.
Differential Diagnosis
Trichomoniasis must be differentiated from other causes of vaginitis such as bacterial vaginosis, vulvovaginal candidiasis, and atrophic vaginitis.[5]
Epidemiology and Demographics
Trichomoniasis is the most common curable STD in young, sexually active women. An estimated 7.4 million new cases occur each year in women and men. In 2008, the incidence of trichomoniasis was estimated to be 358 cases per 100,000 individuals in the United States.[6] Females are more commonly affected with trichomoniasis than males.[7] Trichomoniasis usually affects African American individuals. Caucasian individuals are less likely to develop trichomoniasis. In the United States, the highest prevalence of trichomonas infection in US women is seen among African-Americans with rates ranging from 13–51%.[8]
Risk Factors
Common risk factors in the development of trichomoniasis include multiple sexual partners, unprotected sexual activity, intravenous drug use, and coexisting veneral disease.[8][9]
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
If left untreated, women with trichomoniasis may progress to develop infection of the adnexa, endometrium, and Skene and Bartholin glands. In men, it can cause epididymitis, prostatitis, and decreased sperm cell motility.[8] Complications of trichomoniasis include pelvic inflammatory disease, increased risk of HIV, increased risk of cervical cancer, increased risk of prostate cancer, and pregnancy related complications such as low birth weight, preterm delivery, and premature rupture of membranes. The prognosis of trichomoniasis is generally excellent with treatment.[10]
Diagnosis
History and Symptoms
A detailed and thorough sexual history from the patient is necessary. Specific areas of focus when obtaining a history from the patient include number and type of sexual partners (new, casual, or regular), contraception use, and previous history of trichomoniasis or other sexually transmitted diseases. The majority of women (85%) and men (77%) with trichomoniasis are asymptomatic. One third of asymptomatic women become symptomatic within 6 months. Common symptoms of trichomoniasis in women include vaginal discharge (which is often diffuse, malodorous, and yellow-green or gray in color), painful urination (dysuria), vulvar irritation and itching, abdominal pain and discomfort during sexual intercourse.[8] Symptoms of trichomoniasis in males include clear or mucopurulent urethral discharge, painful urination, and pruritus or a burning sensation following sexual intercourse.[9]
Physical Examination
Patients with trichomoniasis are usually well-appearing. Common physical examination findings of trichomoniasis include strawberry cervix and a foul-smelling, frothy, and mucopurulent green or gray vaginal discharge.[11][12] In males, there may be scanty, mucopurulent urethral discharge.[13]
Laboratory Findings
Laboratory tests used in the diagnosis of trichomoniasis include saline microscopy, culture, and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs).[14]
Treatment
Medical Therapy
Trichomoniasis can usually be cured with the prescription drug, metronidazole, given by mouth in a single dose. The symptoms of trichomoniasis in infected men may disappear within a few weeks without treatment. However, an infected man, even a man who has never had symptoms or whose symptoms have stopped, can continue to infect or re-infect a female partner until he has been treated. Therefore, both partners should be treated at the same time to eliminate the parasite. Persons being treated for trichomoniasis should avoid sex until they and their sex partners complete treatment and have no symptoms. Metronidazole can be used by pregnant women. Having trichomoniasis once does not protect a person from getting it again. Following successful treatment, people can still be susceptible to re-infection.
Primary Prevention
Effective measures for the primary prevention of trichomoniasis include abstinence from sexual contact. Latex male condoms, when used consistently and correctly, can reduce the risk of transmission of trichomoniasis. Any genital symptom such as discharge, burning during urination, or an unusual sore or rash should be a signal to stop having sex and to consult a health care provider immediately.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Thorburn AL (1974). "Alfred François Donné, 1801-1878, discoverer of Trichomonas vaginalis and of leukaemia". Br J Vener Dis. 50 (5): 377–80. PMC 1045069. PMID 4138951.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Trichomonas vaginalis. Wikipedia.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichomonas_vaginalis Accessed on January 26, 2016
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 "STD Facts - Trichomoniasis". Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 "DPDx - Trichomoniasis". Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Hainer BL, Gibson MV (2011). "Vaginitis". Am Fam Physician. 83 (7): 807–15. PMID 21524046.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Incidence, Prevalence, and Cost of Sexually Transmitted Infections in the United States. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats/sti-estimates-fact-sheet-feb-2013.pdf Accessed on February 2, 2016
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Trichomoniasis Statistics. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/trichomonas/stats.htm Accessed on January 26, 2016
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 Kissinger P (2015). "Trichomonas vaginalis: a review of epidemiologic, clinical and treatment issues". BMC Infect Dis. 15: 307. doi:10.1186/s12879-015-1055-0. PMC 4525749. PMID 26242185.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "Trichomoniasis - CDC Fact Sheet". Retrieved 12 January 2011.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Swygard H, Seña AC, Hobbs MM, Cohen MS (2004). "Trichomoniasis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and management". Sex Transm Infect. 80 (2): 91–5. PMC 1744792. PMID 15054166.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Hobbs MM, Seña AC (2013). "Modern diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection". Sex Transm Infect. 89 (6): 434–8. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2013-051057. PMC 3787709. PMID 23633669.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Trichomonas vaginalis. Wikipedia.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichomonas_vaginalis Accessed on February 4, 2016
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Petrin D, Delgaty K, Bhatt R, Garber G (1998). "Clinical and microbiological aspects of Trichomonas vaginalis". Clin Microbiol Rev. 11 (2): 300–17. PMC 106834. PMID 9564565.
- ↑ Trichomoniasis . Wikipedia.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichomoniasis Accessed on February 4, 2016