Fungal meningitis risk factors: Difference between revisions

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===Risk factors by the causative organism===
===Risk factors by the causative organism===
*'''[[Aspergillus sp.]]'''
*'''[[Aspergillus|Aspergillus sp.]]'''
**[[Sinusitis]]
**[[Sinusitis]]
**[[Granulocytopenia]]
**[[Granulocytopenia]]
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**Persons with [[diabetes]] and  
**Persons with [[diabetes]] and  
**[[Smoking]]
**[[Smoking]]
*''[[Candida sp.]]''
*''[[Candida|Candida sp.]]''
**[[IV drug abusers|IV drug abuse]]
**[[IV drug abusers|IV drug abuse]]
**Post surgery
**Post surgery
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*''[[Cryptococcus neoformans]]''
*''[[Cryptococcus neoformans]]''
**[[Human Immunodeficiency Virus|Human immunodeficiency virus]] ([[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]) / [[acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]] ([[AIDS]])
**[[Human Immunodeficiency Virus|Human immunodeficiency virus]] ([[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]) / [[acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]] ([[AIDS]])
**Immune suppression examples  systemic neoplasia and organ transplantation
**[[Immune suppression]] (examples  [[Neoplasia|systemic neoplasia]] and [[organ transplantation]])
**Pigeon exposure
**Pigeon exposure
**Skin and other organ involvement due to [[Disseminated disease|disseminated]] infection
**Skin and other organ involvement due to [[Disseminated disease|disseminated]] infection
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**[[Human Immunodeficiency Virus|Human immunodeficiency virus]] ([[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]) / [[acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]] ([[AIDS]])
**[[Human Immunodeficiency Virus|Human immunodeficiency virus]] ([[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV]]) / [[acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]] ([[AIDS]])
**[[Mucosal]] lesions
**[[Mucosal]] lesions
*''Pseudoallescheria boydii''
*''[[Pseudallescheria boydii|Pseudallescheria]]'' [[Pseudallescheria boydii|''boydii'']]
**Water [[aspiration]]
**Water [[aspiration]]
*''[[Sporothrix schenckii]]''
*''[[Sporothrix schenckii]]''
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Children with the following conditions have higher incidence of fungal meningitis:
Children with the following conditions have higher [[incidence]] of fungal meningitis:


*[[Myeloperoxidase deficiency]]<ref name="pmid6834633">{{cite journal| author=Oleske J, Minnefor A, Cooper R, Thomas K, dela Cruz A, Ahdieh H et al.| title=Immune deficiency syndrome in children. | journal=JAMA | year= 1983 | volume= 249 | issue= 17 | pages= 2345-9 | pmid=6834633 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6834633  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8381226">{{cite journal| author=Ludviksson BR, Thorarensen O, Gudnason T, Halldorsson S| title=Candida albicans meningitis in a child with myeloperoxidase deficiency. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 1993 | volume= 12 | issue= 2 | pages= 162-4 | pmid=8381226 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8381226  }} </ref>
*[[Myeloperoxidase deficiency]]<ref name="pmid6834633">{{cite journal| author=Oleske J, Minnefor A, Cooper R, Thomas K, dela Cruz A, Ahdieh H et al.| title=Immune deficiency syndrome in children. | journal=JAMA | year= 1983 | volume= 249 | issue= 17 | pages= 2345-9 | pmid=6834633 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6834633  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8381226">{{cite journal| author=Ludviksson BR, Thorarensen O, Gudnason T, Halldorsson S| title=Candida albicans meningitis in a child with myeloperoxidase deficiency. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 1993 | volume= 12 | issue= 2 | pages= 162-4 | pmid=8381226 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8381226  }} </ref>
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*[[Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis]]<ref name="pmid8160723">{{cite journal| author=Germain M, Gourdeau M, Hébert J| title=Case report: familial chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis complicated by deep candida infection. | journal=Am J Med Sci | year= 1994 | volume= 307 | issue= 4 | pages= 282-3 | pmid=8160723 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8160723  }} </ref>
*[[Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis]]<ref name="pmid8160723">{{cite journal| author=Germain M, Gourdeau M, Hébert J| title=Case report: familial chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis complicated by deep candida infection. | journal=Am J Med Sci | year= 1994 | volume= 307 | issue= 4 | pages= 282-3 | pmid=8160723 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8160723  }} </ref>


* White blood cell defects<ref name="pmid7195647">{{cite journal| author=Cohen MS, Isturiz RE, Malech HL, Root RK, Wilfert CM, Gutman L et al.| title=Fungal infection in chronic granulomatous disease. The importance of the phagocyte in defense against fungi. | journal=Am J Med | year= 1981 | volume= 71 | issue= 1 | pages= 59-66 | pmid=7195647 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7195647  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3706396">{{cite journal| author=Fleischmann J, Church JA, Lehrer RI| title=Primary Candida meningitis and chronic granulomatous disease. | journal=Am J Med Sci | year= 1986 | volume= 291 | issue= 5 | pages= 334-41 | pmid=3706396 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3706396  }} </ref>
* [[White blood cells|White blood cell]] defects<ref name="pmid7195647">{{cite journal| author=Cohen MS, Isturiz RE, Malech HL, Root RK, Wilfert CM, Gutman L et al.| title=Fungal infection in chronic granulomatous disease. The importance of the phagocyte in defense against fungi. | journal=Am J Med | year= 1981 | volume= 71 | issue= 1 | pages= 59-66 | pmid=7195647 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7195647  }} </ref><ref name="pmid3706396">{{cite journal| author=Fleischmann J, Church JA, Lehrer RI| title=Primary Candida meningitis and chronic granulomatous disease. | journal=Am J Med Sci | year= 1986 | volume= 291 | issue= 5 | pages= 334-41 | pmid=3706396 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3706396  }} </ref>


*[[Severe combined immunodeficiency]] [[Severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]]<ref name="pmid6726524">{{cite journal| author=Smego RA, Devoe PW, Sampson HA, Perfect JR, Wilfert CM, Buckley RH| title=Candida meningitis in two children with severe combined immunodeficiency. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 1984 | volume= 104 | issue= 6 | pages= 902-4 | pmid=6726524 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6726524  }} </ref>
*[[Severe combined immunodeficiency]] [[Severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]]<ref name="pmid6726524">{{cite journal| author=Smego RA, Devoe PW, Sampson HA, Perfect JR, Wilfert CM, Buckley RH| title=Candida meningitis in two children with severe combined immunodeficiency. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 1984 | volume= 104 | issue= 6 | pages= 902-4 | pmid=6726524 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6726524  }} </ref>
   
   
*Advanced HIV<ref name="pmid9314460">{{cite journal| author=Casado JL, Quereda C, Oliva J, Navas E, Moreno A, Pintado V et al.| title=Candidal meningitis in HIV-infected patients: analysis of 14 cases. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1997 | volume= 25 | issue= 3 | pages= 673-6 | pmid=9314460 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9314460  }} </ref>
*Advanced [[HIV]]<ref name="pmid9314460">{{cite journal| author=Casado JL, Quereda C, Oliva J, Navas E, Moreno A, Pintado V et al.| title=Candidal meningitis in HIV-infected patients: analysis of 14 cases. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1997 | volume= 25 | issue= 3 | pages= 673-6 | pmid=9314460 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9314460  }} </ref>


*Direct extension via [[trauma]] <ref name="pmid10442428">{{cite journal| author=Brenier-Pinchart MP, Leclercq P, Mallié M, Bettega G| title=Candida meningitis possibly resulting from a harpoon injury. | journal=Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis | year= 1999 | volume= 18 | issue= 6 | pages= 454-5 | pmid=10442428 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10442428  }} </ref>
*Direct extension via [[trauma]] <ref name="pmid10442428">{{cite journal| author=Brenier-Pinchart MP, Leclercq P, Mallié M, Bettega G| title=Candida meningitis possibly resulting from a harpoon injury. | journal=Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis | year= 1999 | volume= 18 | issue= 6 | pages= 454-5 | pmid=10442428 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10442428  }} </ref>
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*Post [[ventriculostomy]] placement, or ventricular shunts, especially after [[antibacterial]] therapy<ref name="pmid21431456">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien D, Stevens NT, Lim CH, O'Brien DF, Smyth E, Fitzpatrick F et al.| title=Candida infection of the central nervous system following neurosurgery: a 12-year review. | journal=Acta Neurochir (Wien) | year= 2011 | volume= 153 | issue= 6 | pages= 1347-50 | pmid=21431456 | doi=10.1007/s00701-011-0990-9 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21431456  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8562739">{{cite journal| author=Nguyen MH, Yu VL| title=Meningitis caused by Candida species: an emerging problem in neurosurgical patients. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1995 | volume= 21 | issue= 2 | pages= 323-7 | pmid=8562739 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8562739  }} </ref>
*Post [[ventriculostomy]] placement, or ventricular shunts, especially after [[antibacterial]] therapy<ref name="pmid21431456">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien D, Stevens NT, Lim CH, O'Brien DF, Smyth E, Fitzpatrick F et al.| title=Candida infection of the central nervous system following neurosurgery: a 12-year review. | journal=Acta Neurochir (Wien) | year= 2011 | volume= 153 | issue= 6 | pages= 1347-50 | pmid=21431456 | doi=10.1007/s00701-011-0990-9 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21431456  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8562739">{{cite journal| author=Nguyen MH, Yu VL| title=Meningitis caused by Candida species: an emerging problem in neurosurgical patients. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1995 | volume= 21 | issue= 2 | pages= 323-7 | pmid=8562739 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8562739  }} </ref>


*Use of bischloroethylnitrosourea [[polymer]] wafers implanted for local therapy of CNS malignancies<ref name="pmid21158511">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien D, Cotter M, Lim CH, Sattar MT, Smyth E, Fitzpatrick F| title=Candida parapsilosis meningitis associated with Gliadel (BCNU) wafer implants. | journal=Br J Neurosurg | year= 2011 | volume= 25 | issue= 2 | pages= 289-91 | pmid=21158511 | doi=10.3109/02688697.2010.534202 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21158511  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20028954">{{cite journal| author=Glick JA, Graham RS, Voils SA| title=Candida meningitis post Gliadel wafer placement successfully treated with intrathecal and intravenous amphotericin B. | journal=Ann Pharmacother | year= 2010 | volume= 44 | issue= 1 | pages= 215-8 | pmid=20028954 | doi=10.1345/aph.1M453 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20028954  }} </ref>
*Use of bischloroethylnitrosourea [[polymer]] wafers implanted for local therapy of [[CNS tumor|CNS malignancies]]<ref name="pmid21158511">{{cite journal| author=O'Brien D, Cotter M, Lim CH, Sattar MT, Smyth E, Fitzpatrick F| title=Candida parapsilosis meningitis associated with Gliadel (BCNU) wafer implants. | journal=Br J Neurosurg | year= 2011 | volume= 25 | issue= 2 | pages= 289-91 | pmid=21158511 | doi=10.3109/02688697.2010.534202 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21158511  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20028954">{{cite journal| author=Glick JA, Graham RS, Voils SA| title=Candida meningitis post Gliadel wafer placement successfully treated with intrathecal and intravenous amphotericin B. | journal=Ann Pharmacother | year= 2010 | volume= 44 | issue= 1 | pages= 215-8 | pmid=20028954 | doi=10.1345/aph.1M453 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20028954  }} </ref>


* CNS drains and catheters represent disease<ref name="pmid10452649">{{cite journal| author=Geers TA, Gordon SM| title=Clinical significance of Candida species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid following neurosurgery. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1999 | volume= 28 | issue= 5 | pages= 1139-47 | pmid=10452649 | doi=10.1086/514755 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10452649  }} </ref>
* CNS drains and catheters represent disease<ref name="pmid10452649">{{cite journal| author=Geers TA, Gordon SM| title=Clinical significance of Candida species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid following neurosurgery. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1999 | volume= 28 | issue= 5 | pages= 1139-47 | pmid=10452649 | doi=10.1086/514755 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10452649  }} </ref>

Revision as of 14:15, 4 April 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Rim Halaby; Prince Tano Djan, BSc, MBChB [2]

Overview

Fungal meningitis rarely occurs in otherwise healthy individuals. Co-existing medical conditions, immunosuppression and travel history to areas where specific fungi are endemic are risk factors for fungal meningitis. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]

Risk Factors

Risk factors in the development of fungal meningitis include:[9][10][1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][11]


Risk factors by the causative organism


Risk factors in children

Children with the following conditions have higher incidence of fungal meningitis:

  • CNS drains and catheters represent disease[25]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Chiller TM, Galgiani JN, Stevens DA (2003). "Coccidioidomycosis". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 17 (1): 41–57, viii. PMID 12751260.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Singh N, Husain S (2000). "Infections of the central nervous system in transplant recipients". Transpl Infect Dis. 2 (3): 101–11. PMID 11429020.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Rosenstein NE, Emery KW, Werner SB, Kao A, Johnson R, Rogers D; et al. (2001). "Risk factors for severe pulmonary and disseminated coccidioidomycosis: Kern County, California, 1995-1996". Clin Infect Dis. 32 (5): 708–15. doi:10.1086/319203. PMID 11229838.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Gottfredsson M, Perfect JR (2000). "Fungal meningitis". Semin Neurol. 20 (3): 307–22. doi:10.1055/s-2000-9394. PMID 11051295.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Fraser DW, Ward JI, Ajello L, Plikaytis BD (1979). "Aspergillosis and other systemic mycoses. The growing problem". JAMA. 242 (15): 1631–5. PMID 480580.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Perfect JR, Lang SD, Durack DT (1980). "Chronic cryptococcal meningitis: a new experimental model in rabbits". Am J Pathol. 101 (1): 177–94. PMC 1903580. PMID 7004196.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Perfect JR, Durack DT (1985). "Chemotactic activity of cerebrospinal fluid in experimental cryptococcal meningitis". Sabouraudia. 23 (1): 37–45. PMID 3992427.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Perfect JR, Durack DT (1985). "Effects of cyclosporine in experimental cryptococcal meningitis". Infect Immun. 50 (1): 22–6. PMC 262129. PMID 3899932.
  9. ↑ Morgand M, Rammaert B, Poirée S, Bougnoux ME, Tran H, Kania R; et al. (2015). "Chronic Invasive Aspergillus Sinusitis and Otitis with Meningeal Extension Successfully Treated with Voriconazole". Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 59 (12): 7857–61. doi:10.1128/AAC.01506-15. PMC 4649149. PMID 26392507.
  10. ↑ Shankar SK, Mahadevan A, Sundaram C, Sarkar C, Chacko G, Lanjewar DN; et al. (2007). "Pathobiology of fungal infections of the central nervous system with special reference to the Indian scenario". Neurol India. 55 (3): 198–215. PMID 17921648.
  11. ↑ Mody CH, Toews GB, Lipscomb MF (1988). "Cyclosporin A inhibits the growth of Cryptococcus neoformans in a murine model". Infect Immun. 56 (1): 7–12. PMC 259224. PMID 3275587.
  12. ↑ Koroshetz WJ. Chapter 382. Chronic and Recurrent Meningitis. In: Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Jameson JL, Loscalzo J, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 18th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2012.
  13. ↑ Oleske J, Minnefor A, Cooper R, Thomas K, dela Cruz A, Ahdieh H; et al. (1983). "Immune deficiency syndrome in children". JAMA. 249 (17): 2345–9. PMID 6834633.
  14. ↑ Ludviksson BR, Thorarensen O, Gudnason T, Halldorsson S (1993). "Candida albicans meningitis in a child with myeloperoxidase deficiency". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 12 (2): 162–4. PMID 8381226.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Cohen MS, Isturiz RE, Malech HL, Root RK, Wilfert CM, Gutman L; et al. (1981). "Fungal infection in chronic granulomatous disease. The importance of the phagocyte in defense against fungi". Am J Med. 71 (1): 59–66. PMID 7195647.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Fleischmann J, Church JA, Lehrer RI (1986). "Primary Candida meningitis and chronic granulomatous disease". Am J Med Sci. 291 (5): 334–41. PMID 3706396.
  17. ↑ Germain M, Gourdeau M, Hébert J (1994). "Case report: familial chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis complicated by deep candida infection". Am J Med Sci. 307 (4): 282–3. PMID 8160723.
  18. ↑ Smego RA, Devoe PW, Sampson HA, Perfect JR, Wilfert CM, Buckley RH (1984). "Candida meningitis in two children with severe combined immunodeficiency". J Pediatr. 104 (6): 902–4. PMID 6726524.
  19. ↑ Casado JL, Quereda C, Oliva J, Navas E, Moreno A, Pintado V; et al. (1997). "Candidal meningitis in HIV-infected patients: analysis of 14 cases". Clin Infect Dis. 25 (3): 673–6. PMID 9314460.
  20. ↑ Brenier-Pinchart MP, Leclercq P, Mallié M, Bettega G (1999). "Candida meningitis possibly resulting from a harpoon injury". Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 18 (6): 454–5. PMID 10442428.
  21. ↑ O'Brien D, Stevens NT, Lim CH, O'Brien DF, Smyth E, Fitzpatrick F; et al. (2011). "Candida infection of the central nervous system following neurosurgery: a 12-year review". Acta Neurochir (Wien). 153 (6): 1347–50. doi:10.1007/s00701-011-0990-9. PMID 21431456.
  22. ↑ Nguyen MH, Yu VL (1995). "Meningitis caused by Candida species: an emerging problem in neurosurgical patients". Clin Infect Dis. 21 (2): 323–7. PMID 8562739.
  23. ↑ O'Brien D, Cotter M, Lim CH, Sattar MT, Smyth E, Fitzpatrick F (2011). "Candida parapsilosis meningitis associated with Gliadel (BCNU) wafer implants". Br J Neurosurg. 25 (2): 289–91. doi:10.3109/02688697.2010.534202. PMID 21158511.
  24. ↑ Glick JA, Graham RS, Voils SA (2010). "Candida meningitis post Gliadel wafer placement successfully treated with intrathecal and intravenous amphotericin B." Ann Pharmacother. 44 (1): 215–8. doi:10.1345/aph.1M453. PMID 20028954.
  25. ↑ Geers TA, Gordon SM (1999). "Clinical significance of Candida species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid following neurosurgery". Clin Infect Dis. 28 (5): 1139–47. doi:10.1086/514755. PMID 10452649.
  26. ↑ Fernandez M, Moylett EH, Noyola DE, Baker CJ (2000). "Candidal meningitis in neonates: a 10-year review". Clin Infect Dis. 31 (2): 458–63. doi:10.1086/313973. PMID 10987705.

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