Lung abscess differential diagnosis: Difference between revisions

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==Differential==
==Differential==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |Disease
! rowspan="3" |Disease
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|-
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|Acute Lung abscess
|Acute Lung abscess
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* Air fluid level
* Air fluid level
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* Foul smelling sputum
* Foul smelling [[sputum]]
* H/o of prior infection or hospitalization
* H/o of prior [[infection]] or [[hospitalization]]
* Associated with risk factors like aspiration and alcoholism
* Associated with risk factors like [[aspiration]] and [[alcoholism]]
|-
|-
|[[Malignancy]]  
|[[Malignancy]]  
([[Lung cancer|primary lung cancer]])
([[Lung cancer|primary lung cancer]])
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|✔
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* A coin-shaped lesion with thick wall(>15mm) is seen on CXR with less ground glass opacities <sup>[[Lung abscess differential diagnosis|[2][3]]</sup>
* A coin-shaped lesion with thick wall(>15mm) is seen on chest x-ray with less ground glass opacities <sup>[[Lung abscess differential diagnosis|[2][3]]</sup>
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* Long H/o smoking  
* Long H/o smoking  
* Elderly male or female
* Elderly male or female
* BAL positive for malignant cells
* BAL positive for [[malignant]] [[cells]]
* CT guided biopsy is required for confirmation and differnatiation
* CT guided [[biopsy]] is required for confirmation and differnatiation
|-
|-
|[[Tuberculosis, pulmonary|Pulmonary Tuberculosis]]
|[[Tuberculosis, pulmonary|Pulmonary Tuberculosis]]
|✔
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* CXR and CT demonstrates [[Internal|cavities]] in the upper lobe of the lung
* Chest x-ray and CT demonstrates [[Internal|cavities]] in the upper lobe of the [[lung]]
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* People in [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] at high risk
* People in [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] at high risk
* Cough >2 weeks with [[hemoptysis]]  
* [[Cough]] >2 weeks with [[hemoptysis]]  
* [[Acid fast|Acid fast stain]] positive for mycobacteria
* [[Acid fast|Acid fast stain]] positive for [[Mycobacterium|mycobacteria]]
|-
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|[[Pneumonia|Necrotizing Pneumonia]]
|[[Pneumonia|Necrotizing Pneumonia]]
|✔
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* Acute life threatening condition  
* Acute life threatening condition  
* Complication of pneumonia or lung abscess
* Complication of [[pneumonia]] or lung abscess
* Multiple organisms responsible
* Multiple [[organisms]] responsible
* prompt treatment with antibiotics is required
* prompt treatment with [[antibiotics]] is required
* CBC positive for causative organism
* CBC positive for causative organism
|-
|-
|[[empyema]]
|[[empyema]]
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* Homogeneous consolidation involving one, or less commonly, multiple lobes
* Homogeneous [[Consolidation (medicine)|consolidation]] involving one, or less commonly, multiple [[lobes]]
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* Blood culture positive for causative agent.
* Blood culture positive for causative agent.
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* Specific findings include linear lucencies  tram tracking appearance, clustered cysts.
* Specific findings include linear lucencies  tram tracking appearance, clustered cysts.


* increased pulmonary markings, honeycombing, atelectasis and pleural changes.
* Increased [[pulmonary]] markings, honeycombing, [[atelectasis]] and pleural changes.
|High resolution CT helps in diagnosis .
|High resolution CT helps in diagnosis .
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* Pulmonary nodules with cavities and infiltrates
* [[Pulmonary]] [[nodules]] with [[cavities]] and infiltrates
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* Seen mostly in Female age group of 40-55 years
* Seen mostly in female age group of 40-55 years
* Traid of Upper , lower respiratory tract and kidney disease
* Traid of Upper , lower respiratory tract and kidney disease
* Biopsy of involved organ confirms granulomas
* Biopsy of involved [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]] confirms [[granulomas]]
|-
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|[[Sarcoidosis]]
|[[Sarcoidosis]]
|✔
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* Bilateral [[Lymphadenopathy|adenopathy]] and coarse reticular opacities are seen on CXR
* [[Bilateral]] [[Lymphadenopathy|adenopathy]] and coarse reticular opacities are seen on CXR
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* More common in African-american females
* More common in African-american females
* [[Restrictive lung disease]]
* [[Restrictive lung disease]]
** Biposy  findings [[epithelioid]] [[granuloma]]<nowiki/>s [[Schaumann bodies|schaumann]]<nowiki/>asteroid bodies.
** Biposy  findings[[epithelioid]] ,[[Granulomas|granuloma<nowiki/>s]][[Schaumann bodies|s,chaumann]]<nowiki/>, asteroid bodies.
|-
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|[[Rheumatoid nodule]]
|[[Rheumatoid nodule]]
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* Biopsy often confirms the diagnosis
* Biopsy often confirms the diagnosis
|}
|}
<br><br>
{| class="wikitable"
!Causes of
lung cavities
!Differentiating Features
!Differentiating lab findings
!Diagnosis
confirmation
|-
|
*[[Malignancy]] ([[Lung cancer|Primary lung cance<nowiki/>r]])<ref name="pmid4353362">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaudhuri MR |title=Primary pulmonary cavitating carcinomas |journal=Thorax |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=354–66 |year=1973 |pmid=4353362 |pmc=470041 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|
*Elderly male or female <ref name="pmid4353362">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaudhuri MR |title=Primary pulmonary cavitating carcinomas |journal=Thorax |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=354–66 |year=1973 |pmid=4353362 |pmc=470041 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Chronic smokers
*Presents with a [[low-grade fever]], absence of [[leukocytosis]], systemic complaints [[weight loss]], [[fatigue]]
*Absence of factors that predispose to [[gastric content aspiration]], no response to [[antibiotics]] within 10 days
*[[Hemoptysis]] is commonly associated with [[bronchogenic carcinoma]]
|
*A coin-shaped lesion with thick wall(>15mm) is seen on CXR with less ground glass opacities <ref name="pmid8572761">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mouroux J, Padovani B, Elkaïm D, Richelme H |title=Should cavitated bronchopulmonary cancers be considered a separate entity? |journal=Ann. Thorac. Surg. |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=530–2 |year=1996 |pmid=8572761 |doi=10.1016/0003-4975(95)00973-6 |url=}}</ref> <ref name="pmid16183941">{{cite journal |vauthors=Onn A, Choe DH, Herbst RS, Correa AM, Munden RF, Truong MT, Vaporciyan AA, Isobe T, Gilcrease MZ, Marom EM |title=Tumor cavitation in stage I non-small cell lung cancer: epidermal growth factor receptor expression and prediction of poor outcome |journal=Radiology |volume=237 |issue=1 |pages=342–7 |year=2005 |pmid=16183941 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2371041650 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Bronchoalveolar lavage]] [[cytology]] shows malignant cells
|
*[[Biopsy]] of lung
|-
|
*Pulmonary [[Tuberculosis, pulmonary|Tuberculosis]]
|
*Mostly in endemic areas
*Symptoms include [[productive cough]],[[night sweats]], [[fever]] and [[weight loss]]
|
*CXR and CT demonstrates [[Internal|cavities]] in the upper lobe of the lung
|
*[[Sputum]] smear positive for [[acid-fast bacilli]] and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) is used on sputum or any sterile fluid for rapid diagnosis and is positive for mycobacteria.
|-
|
*[[Necrotizing Pulmonary Infections|Necrotizing]] [[Pneumonia]]
|
*Any age group
*Acute, [[fulminant]] life threating complication of prior infection
*>100.4F fever, with [[Hemodynamically unstable|hemodynamic]] instability
*Worsening [[pneumonia]]-like symptoms
|
*CXR demonstrates multiple cavitary lesions
*[[Pleural effusion]] and [[empyema]] are common findings
|
*[[Complete blood count|CBC]] is positive for causative organism 
|-
|
*Loculated [[empyema]]
|
* Children and elderly are at risk
*Pleuritic [[chest pain]], [[dry cough]], [[fever]] with chills
*Dullness to [[Percussion of the lungs|percussion]] decreased [[breath sounds]], and reduced vocal resonance on examination
|
*[[Empyema]] appears lenticular in shape and has a thin wall with smooth luminal margins
|
*[[Thoracocentesis]]
|-
|
*[[Granulomatosis with polyangiitis]] ([[Wegener's granulomatosis|Wegener's]])<ref name="pmid10377211">{{cite journal |vauthors=Langford CA, Hoffman GS |title=Rare diseases.3: Wegener's granulomatosis |journal=Thorax |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=629–37 |year=1999 |pmid=10377211 |pmc=1745525 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|
*Women are more commonly effected than man.<ref name="pmid12541109">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee KS, Kim TS, Fujimoto K, Moriya H, Watanabe H, Tateishi U, Ashizawa K, Johkoh T, Kim EA, Kwon OJ |title=Thoracic manifestation of Wegener's granulomatosis: CT findings in 30 patients |journal=Eur Radiol |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=43–51 |year=2003 |pmid=12541109 |doi=10.1007/s00330-002-1422-2 |url=}}</ref>
*Kidneys are also involved
*Upper respiratory tract symptoms , perforation of [[nasal septum]], [[chronic sinusitis]], [[otitis media]], [[mastoiditis]].
*Lower respiratory tract symptoms, [[hemoptysis]],  [[cough]], [[dyspnea]].
*Renal symptoms, [[hematuria]], red cell [[casts]]
|
*Pulmonary nodules with cavities and infiltrates are a frequent manifestation on CXR
|
*Positive for [[P-ANCA]]
*Biopsy of the tissue involved shows necrotizing [[granulomas]] <ref name="pmid10377211">{{cite journal |vauthors=Langford CA, Hoffman GS |title=Rare diseases.3: Wegener's granulomatosis |journal=Thorax |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=629–37 |year=1999 |pmid=10377211 |pmc=1745525 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|-
|
*[[Rheumatoid nodule]]
|
*Elderly females of 40-50 age group
*Manifestation of [[rheumatoid arthritis]]
*Presents with other systemic symptoms including symmetric [[arthritis]] of the small joints of the hands and feet with morning stiffness are common manifestations.
|
*Pulmonary nodules with cavitation are located in the upper lobe ([[Caplan syndrome]]) on Xray.
|
*Positive for both [[rheumatoid factor]] and anticyclic citrullinated peptide [[Antibody|antibody.]]
|-
|
*[[Sarcoidosis]]
|
*More common in African-American females
*Often [[asymptomatic]] except for [[Lymphadenopathy|enlarged lymph nodes]]<ref name="pmid11734441">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baughman RP, Teirstein AS, Judson MA, Rossman MD, Yeager H, Bresnitz EA, DePalo L, Hunninghake G, Iannuzzi MC, Johns CJ, McLennan G, Moller DR, Newman LS, Rabin DL, Rose C, Rybicki B, Weinberger SE, Terrin ML, Knatterud GL, Cherniak R |title=Clinical characteristics of patients in a case control study of sarcoidosis |journal=Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. |volume=164 |issue=10 Pt 1 |pages=1885–9 |year=2001 |pmid=11734441 |doi=10.1164/ajrccm.164.10.2104046 |url=}}</ref>
*Associated with [[restrictive lung disease]]
*[[Erythema nodosum]]
*[[Lupus pernio]] (skin lesions on face resembling lupus)
*[[Bell's palsy|Bell palsy]]
*[[Epithelioid]] [[granuloma]]<nowiki/>s containing microscopic [[Schaumann bodies|Schaumann]] and asteroid bodies
|
*On CXR bilateral [[Lymphadenopathy|adenopathy]] and coarse reticular opacities are seen.
*CT of the chest demonstrates extensive [[Hilar lymphadenopathy|hilar]] and mediastinal adenopathy
*Additional findings on CT include [[fibrosis]] (honeycomb, linear, or associated with bronchial distortion), pleural thickening, and ground-glass opacities.<ref name="pmid2748828">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brauner MW, Grenier P, Mompoint D, Lenoir S, de Crémoux H |title=Pulmonary sarcoidosis: evaluation with high-resolution CT |journal=Radiology |volume=172 |issue=2 |pages=467–71 |year=1989 |pmid=2748828 |doi=10.1148/radiology.172.2.2748828 |url=}}</ref>
|
*Biopsy of lung shows non-[[caseating]] [[granuloma]]
|-
|
*[[Bronchiolitis obliterans]] ([[Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia]])<ref name="pmid9724431">{{cite journal |vauthors=Murphy J, Schnyder P, Herold C, Flower C |title=Bronchiolitis obliterans organising pneumonia simulating bronchial carcinoma |journal=Eur Radiol |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=1165–9 |year=1998 |pmid=9724431 |doi=10.1007/s003300050527 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19561910">{{cite journal |vauthors=Al-Ghanem S, Al-Jahdali H, Bamefleh H, Khan AN |title=Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia: pathogenesis, clinical features, imaging and therapy review |journal=Ann Thorac Med |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=67–75 |year=2008 |pmid=19561910 |pmc=2700454 |doi=10.4103/1817-1737.39641 |url=}}</ref>
|
*Rare condition and mimics [[asthma]], [[pneumonia]] and [[emphysema]]
*It is caused by [[drug]] or [[toxin]] exposure, [[autoimmune diseases]], [[viral infections]], or [[radiation injury]]
*People working in industries are at high risk
*Presents with [[Fever|feve]]<nowiki/>r, [[cough]], [[wheezing]] and [[shortness of breath]] over weeks to months,<ref name="pmid2805873">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cordier JF, Loire R, Brune J |title=Idiopathic bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. Definition of characteristic clinical profiles in a series of 16 patients |journal=Chest |volume=96 |issue=5 |pages=999–1004 |year=1989 |pmid=2805873 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|
*Common appearance on CT is patchy [[Consolidation (medicine)|consolidation,]]<nowiki/>often accompanied by ground-glass opacities and nodules.<ref name="pmid8109493">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee KS, Kullnig P, Hartman TE, Müller NL |title=Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia: CT findings in 43 patients |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=162 |issue=3 |pages=543–6 |year=1994 |pmid=8109493 |doi=10.2214/ajr.162.3.8109493 |url=}}</ref>
|
*Biopsy of the lung <ref name="pmid19561910">{{cite journal |vauthors=Al-Ghanem S, Al-Jahdali H, Bamefleh H, Khan AN |title=Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia: pathogenesis, clinical features, imaging and therapy review |journal=Ann Thorac Med |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=67–75 |year=2008 |pmid=19561910 |pmc=2700454 |doi=10.4103/1817-1737.39641 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Pulmonary function tests]] demonstrate low fev1/fvc
|-
|
*[[Langerhans cell histiocytosis|Langerhans]] cell [[Langerhans cell histiocytosis|Histiocytosis]]<ref name="pmid22429393">{{cite journal |vauthors=Suri HS, Yi ES, Nowakowski GS, Vassallo R |title=Pulmonary langerhans cell histiocytosis |journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis |volume=7 |issue= |pages=16 |year=2012 |pmid=22429393 |pmc=3342091 |doi=10.1186/1750-1172-7-16 |url=}}</ref>
|
*Exclusively afflicts smokers, with a peak age of onset of between 20 and 40 years.
*Clinical presentation varies, but symptoms generally include months of dry [[cough]], [[fever]], [[night sweats]] and [[weight loss]].
*Skin is involved in 80% of the cases, scaly [[erythematous rash]] is typical.
|
*Thin-walled cystic cavities are the usual radiographic manifestation, observed in over 50% of patients by either CXR or CT scans.<ref name="pmid2787035">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moore AD, Godwin JD, Müller NL, Naidich DP, Hammar SP, Buschman DL, Takasugi JE, de Carvalho CR |title=Pulmonary histiocytosis X: comparison of radiographic and CT findings |journal=Radiology |volume=172 |issue=1 |pages=249–54 |year=1989 |pmid=2787035 |doi=10.1148/radiology.172.1.2787035 |url=}}</ref>
|
*Biopsy of the lung
|}


== Reference ==
== Reference ==
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[[Category:Infectious disease]]
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Revision as of 18:36, 5 April 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1];Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aditya Ganti M.B.B.S. [2]

Overview

Lung abscess must be differentiated from other lesions that present with similar symptoms such as cough, fever with chills and rigor and chest includes malignancy, pulmonary tuberculosis, Wegener's granulomatosis, rheumatoid nodules.

Differential

Disease Clinical features

Signs & symptoms

Radiological Findings Characterstic feature
Fever Cough Hemoptysis Dyspnea Chest pain Weight loss Night sweats
High-grade Low grade Productive Dry
Acute Lung abscess + + +
  • Air fluid level
Malignancy

(primary lung cancer)

+ + + + +
  • A coin-shaped lesion with thick wall(>15mm) is seen on chest x-ray with less ground glass opacities [2][3
  • Long H/o smoking
  • Elderly male or female
  • BAL positive for malignant cells
  • CT guided biopsy is required for confirmation and differnatiation
Pulmonary Tuberculosis + + + +
  • Chest x-ray and CT demonstrates cavities in the upper lobe of the lung
Necrotizing Pneumonia + + + +
  • Multiple cavitary lesions
  • Acute life threatening condition
  • Complication of pneumonia or lung abscess
  • Multiple organisms responsible
  • prompt treatment with antibiotics is required
  • CBC positive for causative organism
empyema + + + + +
  • Blood culture positive for causative agent.
Bronchiectasis + +
  • Specific findings include linear lucencies tram tracking appearance, clustered cysts.
 High resolution CT helps in diagnosis .
Wegners granulomatosis + + +
  • Seen mostly in female age group of 40-55 years
  • Traid of Upper , lower respiratory tract and kidney disease
  • Biopsy of involved organ confirms granulomas
Sarcoidosis + + + + +
Rheumatoid nodule ✔ ✔
  • Pulmonary nodules with cavitation are located in the upper lobe are seen on CXR
Langerhans cell Histiocytosis ✔ ✔ ✔
  • Thin-walled cystic cavities on CXR
  • Exclusively afflicts smokers.
  • Musculoskeletal and skin is involved
  • Biopsy of the involved organ
Bronchiolitis obliterans ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
  • Common appearance on CT is patchy consolidation,often accompanied by ground-glass opacities and nodules.
  • Occupational exposure of industrial toxins
  • Restrictive type of lung disease
  • Biopsy often confirms the diagnosis




Causes of

lung cavities

Differentiating Features Differentiating lab findings Diagnosis

confirmation

  • CXR and CT demonstrates cavities in the upper lobe of the lung
  • Sputum smear positive for acid-fast bacilli and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) is used on sputum or any sterile fluid for rapid diagnosis and is positive for mycobacteria.
  • Any age group
  • Acute, fulminant life threating complication of prior infection
  • >100.4F fever, with hemodynamic instability
  • Worsening pneumonia-like symptoms
  • CBC is positive for causative organism
  • Children and elderly are at risk
  • Empyema appears lenticular in shape and has a thin wall with smooth luminal margins
  • Pulmonary nodules with cavities and infiltrates are a frequent manifestation on CXR
  • Elderly females of 40-50 age group
  • Manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis
  • Presents with other systemic symptoms including symmetric arthritis of the small joints of the hands and feet with morning stiffness are common manifestations.
  • Pulmonary nodules with cavitation are located in the upper lobe (Caplan syndrome) on Xray.
  • On CXR bilateral adenopathy and coarse reticular opacities are seen.
  • CT of the chest demonstrates extensive hilar and mediastinal adenopathy
  • Additional findings on CT include fibrosis (honeycomb, linear, or associated with bronchial distortion), pleural thickening, and ground-glass opacities.[7]
  • Common appearance on CT is patchy consolidation,often accompanied by ground-glass opacities and nodules.[11]
  • Exclusively afflicts smokers, with a peak age of onset of between 20 and 40 years.
  • Clinical presentation varies, but symptoms generally include months of dry cough, fever, night sweats and weight loss.
  • Skin is involved in 80% of the cases, scaly erythematous rash is typical.
  • Thin-walled cystic cavities are the usual radiographic manifestation, observed in over 50% of patients by either CXR or CT scans.[13]
  • Biopsy of the lung


Reference

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Chaudhuri MR (1973). "Primary pulmonary cavitating carcinomas". Thorax. 28 (3): 354–66. PMC 470041. PMID 4353362.
  2. ↑ Mouroux J, Padovani B, Elkaïm D, Richelme H (1996). "Should cavitated bronchopulmonary cancers be considered a separate entity?". Ann. Thorac. Surg. 61 (2): 530–2. doi:10.1016/0003-4975(95)00973-6. PMID 8572761.
  3. ↑ Onn A, Choe DH, Herbst RS, Correa AM, Munden RF, Truong MT, Vaporciyan AA, Isobe T, Gilcrease MZ, Marom EM (2005). "Tumor cavitation in stage I non-small cell lung cancer: epidermal growth factor receptor expression and prediction of poor outcome". Radiology. 237 (1): 342–7. doi:10.1148/radiol.2371041650. PMID 16183941.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Langford CA, Hoffman GS (1999). "Rare diseases.3: Wegener's granulomatosis". Thorax. 54 (7): 629–37. PMC 1745525. PMID 10377211.
  5. ↑ Lee KS, Kim TS, Fujimoto K, Moriya H, Watanabe H, Tateishi U, Ashizawa K, Johkoh T, Kim EA, Kwon OJ (2003). "Thoracic manifestation of Wegener's granulomatosis: CT findings in 30 patients". Eur Radiol. 13 (1): 43–51. doi:10.1007/s00330-002-1422-2. PMID 12541109.
  6. ↑ Baughman RP, Teirstein AS, Judson MA, Rossman MD, Yeager H, Bresnitz EA, DePalo L, Hunninghake G, Iannuzzi MC, Johns CJ, McLennan G, Moller DR, Newman LS, Rabin DL, Rose C, Rybicki B, Weinberger SE, Terrin ML, Knatterud GL, Cherniak R (2001). "Clinical characteristics of patients in a case control study of sarcoidosis". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164 (10 Pt 1): 1885–9. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.164.10.2104046. PMID 11734441.
  7. ↑ Brauner MW, Grenier P, Mompoint D, Lenoir S, de Crémoux H (1989). "Pulmonary sarcoidosis: evaluation with high-resolution CT". Radiology. 172 (2): 467–71. doi:10.1148/radiology.172.2.2748828. PMID 2748828.
  8. ↑ Murphy J, Schnyder P, Herold C, Flower C (1998). "Bronchiolitis obliterans organising pneumonia simulating bronchial carcinoma". Eur Radiol. 8 (7): 1165–9. doi:10.1007/s003300050527. PMID 9724431.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Al-Ghanem S, Al-Jahdali H, Bamefleh H, Khan AN (2008). "Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia: pathogenesis, clinical features, imaging and therapy review". Ann Thorac Med. 3 (2): 67–75. doi:10.4103/1817-1737.39641. PMC 2700454. PMID 19561910.
  10. ↑ Cordier JF, Loire R, Brune J (1989). "Idiopathic bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. Definition of characteristic clinical profiles in a series of 16 patients". Chest. 96 (5): 999–1004. PMID 2805873.
  11. ↑ Lee KS, Kullnig P, Hartman TE, Müller NL (1994). "Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia: CT findings in 43 patients". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 162 (3): 543–6. doi:10.2214/ajr.162.3.8109493. PMID 8109493.
  12. ↑ Suri HS, Yi ES, Nowakowski GS, Vassallo R (2012). "Pulmonary langerhans cell histiocytosis". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 7: 16. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-7-16. PMC 3342091. PMID 22429393.
  13. ↑ Moore AD, Godwin JD, Müller NL, Naidich DP, Hammar SP, Buschman DL, Takasugi JE, de Carvalho CR (1989). "Pulmonary histiocytosis X: comparison of radiographic and CT findings". Radiology. 172 (1): 249–54. doi:10.1148/radiology.172.1.2787035. PMID 2787035.
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