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{{Toxoplasmosis}} | {{Toxoplasmosis}} | ||
{{CMG}} ; {{AE}}{{ADG}} | |||
{{CMG}} | ==Overview== | ||
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects most species of warm blooded animals, including humans, causing the disease toxoplasmosis. Members of the cat family (Felidae) are the only known definitive hosts for the sexual stages of ''T. gondii'' and thus are the main reservoirs of infection. Cats become infected with ''T. gondii'' by carnivorism . After tissue [[cyst]]s or [[oocyst]]s are ingested by the cat, viable organisms are released and invade [[epithelial cell]]s of the [[small intestine]] where they undergo an asexual followed by a sexual cycle and then form oocysts, which are excreted. The unsporulated oocyst takes 1 to 5 days after excretion to sporulate (become infective). Although cats shed oocysts for only 1 to 2 weeks, large numbers may be shed. Oocysts can survive in the environment for several months and are remarkably resistant to disinfectants, freezing, and drying, but are killed by heating to 70°C for 10 minutes.<ref>http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Toxoplasmosis.htmhttp://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/factsht_toxoplasmosis.htm | |||
</ref> | |||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects most species of warm blooded animals, including humans, causing the disease toxoplasmosis. Members of the cat family (Felidae) are the only known definitive hosts for the sexual stages of ''T. gondii'' and thus are the main reservoirs of infection. Cats become infected with ''T. gondii'' by carnivorism . After tissue [[cyst]]s or [[oocyst]]s are ingested by the cat, viable organisms are released and invade [[epithelial cell]]s of the [[small intestine]] where they undergo an asexual followed by a sexual cycle and then form oocysts, which are excreted. The unsporulated oocyst takes 1 to 5 days after excretion to sporulate (become infective). Although cats shed oocysts for only 1 to 2 weeks, large numbers may be shed. Oocysts can survive in the environment for several months and are remarkably resistant to disinfectants, freezing, and drying, but are killed by heating to 70°C for 10 minutes.<ref>http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Toxoplasmosis.htmhttp://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/factsht_toxoplasmosis.htm | Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects most species of warm blooded animals, including humans, causing the disease toxoplasmosis. Members of the cat family (Felidae) are the only known definitive hosts for the sexual stages of ''T. gondii'' and thus are the main reservoirs of infection. Cats become infected with ''T. gondii'' by carnivorism . After tissue [[cyst]]s or [[oocyst]]s are ingested by the cat, viable organisms are released and invade [[epithelial cell]]s of the [[small intestine]] where they undergo an asexual followed by a sexual cycle and then form oocysts, which are excreted. The unsporulated oocyst takes 1 to 5 days after excretion to sporulate (become infective). Although cats shed oocysts for only 1 to 2 weeks, large numbers may be shed. Oocysts can survive in the environment for several months and are remarkably resistant to disinfectants, freezing, and drying, but are killed by heating to 70°C for 10 minutes.<ref>http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Toxoplasmosis.htmhttp://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/factsht_toxoplasmosis.htm | ||
</ref> | </ref> | ||
==Life cycle== | |||
[[Image:Toxoplasmosis LifeCycle.jpg|center|thumb|300px|Life cycle of ''Toxoplasma gondii'']] | [[Image:Toxoplasmosis LifeCycle.jpg|center|thumb|300px|Life cycle of ''Toxoplasma gondii'']] | ||
===Pathogenesis=== | |||
====Infective stages of the Parasite==== | |||
The three infective stages of T. gondii include:<ref name="pmid19430635">{{cite journal| author=Ferguson DJ| title=Toxoplasma gondii: 1908-2008, homage to Nicolle, Manceaux and Splendore. | journal=Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz | year= 2009 | volume= 104 | issue= 2 | pages= 133-48 | pmid=19430635 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19430635 }}</ref> | |||
*[[Tachyzoite]]: It is the rapidly dividing and invasive form and can invade any vertebrate cell type | |||
*[[Bradyzoite]]: These are the result of conversion from [[tachyzoites]], they are slowly diving form and are present as tissue cysts, which can remain in the host throughout the lifetime in the muscles. | |||
*[[Sporozoite]]: It is the environmental form present in the [[oocysts]] | |||
| url= | ====Mechanism of cell Invasion==== | ||
*The initial step of [[invasion]] is attachment of the [[tachyzoite]] to the host [[cell membrane]]. A set of proteins help in the adherence and penetration of the host cell membrane, these proteins also enhance the growth and [[virulence]] of the parasite.<ref name="pmid194306352">{{cite journal| author=Ferguson DJ| title=Toxoplasma gondii: 1908-2008, homage to Nicolle, Manceaux and Splendore. | journal=Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz | year= 2009 | volume= 104 | issue= 2 | pages= 133-48 | pmid=19430635 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19430635 }}</ref> | |||
*In the host cell the [[Parasites|parasite]] forms a vacuole where it divides for 6 to 9 cycles after which the [[parasites]] are released into the [[circulation]]. It is an active process dependent on the increase in [[intracellular]] calcium stores. | |||
* | ====Pathogenesis of Vertical Transmission==== | ||
*Acute infection with [[tachyzoites]] in the blood stream during [[pregnancy]], a possibility of [[transplacental]] infection is present.<ref name="pmid103594072">{{cite journal| author=Dunn D, Wallon M, Peyron F, Petersen E, Peckham C, Gilbert R| title=Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis: risk estimates for clinical counselling. | journal=Lancet | year= 1999 | volume= 353 | issue= 9167 | pages= 1829-33 | pmid=10359407 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)08220-8 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10359407 }}</ref> | |||
* | *The [[tachyzoites]] colonize in the [[placenta]] and can cross the barrier to reach the [[fetus]] in 30% of cases leading to the disease.<ref name="pmid22079164">{{cite journal| author=Robert-Gangneux F, Murat JB, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Brenier-Pinchart MP, Gangneux JP, Pelloux H| title=The placenta: a main role in congenital toxoplasmosis? | journal=Trends Parasitol | year= 2011 | volume= 27 | issue= 12 | pages= 530-6 | pmid=22079164 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2011.09.005 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22079164 }} </ref> | ||
*The frequency of transmission of the [[tachyzoites]] to the fetus is related to the [[gestational age]], with low transmission rates in the [[first trimester]] (10-15%) and highest transmission rates in the [[third trimester]] (60-90%). However the disease is more severe if the infection is acquired early in the [[pregnancy]].<ref name="pmid10359407">{{cite journal| author=Dunn D, Wallon M, Peyron F, Petersen E, Peckham C, Gilbert R| title=Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis: risk estimates for clinical counselling. | journal=Lancet | year= 1999 | volume= 353 | issue= 9167 | pages= 1829-33 | pmid=10359407 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)08220-8 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10359407 }} </ref> | |||
*The factors influencing the transfer of tachyzoites to the fetus is not well understood. | |||
==== | |||
* | |||
==Associated Conditions== | ==Associated Conditions== | ||
| Line 72: | Line 67: | ||
* Several studies have found significantly higher levels of ''Toxoplasma'' antibodies in schizophrenia patients compared to the general population.<ref name=Wang_2006>{{cite journal |author=Wang H, Wang G, Li Q, Shu C, Jiang M, Guo Y |title=Prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in first-episode schizophrenia and comparison between Toxoplasma-seropositive and Toxoplasma-seronegative schizophrenia |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=40-8 |year=2006 |url= http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00780.x |pmid=16774660}}</ref> | * Several studies have found significantly higher levels of ''Toxoplasma'' antibodies in schizophrenia patients compared to the general population.<ref name=Wang_2006>{{cite journal |author=Wang H, Wang G, Li Q, Shu C, Jiang M, Guo Y |title=Prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in first-episode schizophrenia and comparison between Toxoplasma-seropositive and Toxoplasma-seronegative schizophrenia |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=40-8 |year=2006 |url= http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00780.x |pmid=16774660}}</ref> | ||
* ''Toxoplasma'' infection causes damage to [[astrocyte]]s in the brain, and such damage is also seen in schizophrenia. | * ''Toxoplasma'' infection causes damage to [[astrocyte]]s in the brain, and such damage is also seen in schizophrenia. | ||
===Gross Pathology=== | |||
*[[T.gondii]] has [[tropism]] for central nervous system and mostly affects the [[brain]] and [[eye]]. Areas of [[necrosis]] and [[granulomatous]] lesions in the [[brain]] can be demonstrated on [[autopsy]].<ref name="pmid19870956">{{cite journal| author=Wolf A, Cowen D, Paige BH| title=TOXOPLASMIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS : IV. EXPERIMENTAL TRANSMISSION OF THE INFECTION TO ANIMALS FROM A HUMAN INFANT. | journal=J Exp Med | year= 1940 | volume= 71 | issue= 2 | pages= 187-214 | pmid=19870956 | doi= | pmc=2135077 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19870956 }}</ref> | |||
===Microscopic Pathology=== | |||
*In patients with congenital toxoplasmosis, microscopy of the lesions demonstrate periaqueductal and periventricular [[vasculitis]] with [[necrosis]].<ref name="pmid18128617">{{cite journal| author=FRENKEL JK| title=Pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of human toxoplasmosis. | journal=J Am Med Assoc | year= 1949 | volume= 140 | issue= 4 | pages= 369-77 | pmid=18128617 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18128617 }} </ref><ref name="pmid4592096">{{cite journal| author=Frenkel JK| title=Pathology and pathogenesis of congenital toxoplasmosis. | journal=Bull N Y Acad Med | year= 1974 | volume= 50 | issue= 2 | pages= 182-91 | pmid=4592096 | doi= | pmc=1749352 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4592096 }} </ref> | |||
*Fetal tissue and [[placenta]] can demonstrate [[t.gondii]] [[cysts]] with the [[Wright-Giemsa]] stain and also with immunoperoxidase staining using [[t.gondii]]–specific [[antibodies]].<ref name="pmid7026410">{{cite journal| author=Conley FK, Jenkins KA, Remington JS| title=Toxoplasma gondii infection of the central nervous system. Use of the peroxidase-antiperoxidase method to demonstrate toxoplasma in formalin fixed, paraffin embedded tissue sections. | journal=Hum Pathol | year= 1981 | volume= 12 | issue= 8 | pages= 690-8 | pmid=7026410 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7026410 }} </ref> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 13:37, 26 May 2017
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] ; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aditya Ganti M.B.B.S. [2]
Overview
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects most species of warm blooded animals, including humans, causing the disease toxoplasmosis. Members of the cat family (Felidae) are the only known definitive hosts for the sexual stages of T. gondii and thus are the main reservoirs of infection. Cats become infected with T. gondii by carnivorism . After tissue cysts or oocysts are ingested by the cat, viable organisms are released and invade epithelial cells of the small intestine where they undergo an asexual followed by a sexual cycle and then form oocysts, which are excreted. The unsporulated oocyst takes 1 to 5 days after excretion to sporulate (become infective). Although cats shed oocysts for only 1 to 2 weeks, large numbers may be shed. Oocysts can survive in the environment for several months and are remarkably resistant to disinfectants, freezing, and drying, but are killed by heating to 70°C for 10 minutes.[1]
Pathophysiology
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects most species of warm blooded animals, including humans, causing the disease toxoplasmosis. Members of the cat family (Felidae) are the only known definitive hosts for the sexual stages of T. gondii and thus are the main reservoirs of infection. Cats become infected with T. gondii by carnivorism . After tissue cysts or oocysts are ingested by the cat, viable organisms are released and invade epithelial cells of the small intestine where they undergo an asexual followed by a sexual cycle and then form oocysts, which are excreted. The unsporulated oocyst takes 1 to 5 days after excretion to sporulate (become infective). Although cats shed oocysts for only 1 to 2 weeks, large numbers may be shed. Oocysts can survive in the environment for several months and are remarkably resistant to disinfectants, freezing, and drying, but are killed by heating to 70°C for 10 minutes.[2]
Life cycle
Pathogenesis
Infective stages of the Parasite
The three infective stages of T. gondii include:[3]
- Tachyzoite: It is the rapidly dividing and invasive form and can invade any vertebrate cell type
- Bradyzoite: These are the result of conversion from tachyzoites, they are slowly diving form and are present as tissue cysts, which can remain in the host throughout the lifetime in the muscles.
- Sporozoite: It is the environmental form present in the oocysts
Mechanism of cell Invasion
- The initial step of invasion is attachment of the tachyzoite to the host cell membrane. A set of proteins help in the adherence and penetration of the host cell membrane, these proteins also enhance the growth and virulence of the parasite.[4]
- In the host cell the parasite forms a vacuole where it divides for 6 to 9 cycles after which the parasites are released into the circulation. It is an active process dependent on the increase in intracellular calcium stores.
Pathogenesis of Vertical Transmission
- Acute infection with tachyzoites in the blood stream during pregnancy, a possibility of transplacental infection is present.[5]
- The tachyzoites colonize in the placenta and can cross the barrier to reach the fetus in 30% of cases leading to the disease.[6]
- The frequency of transmission of the tachyzoites to the fetus is related to the gestational age, with low transmission rates in the first trimester (10-15%) and highest transmission rates in the third trimester (60-90%). However the disease is more severe if the infection is acquired early in the pregnancy.[7]
- The factors influencing the transfer of tachyzoites to the fetus is not well understood.
Associated Conditions
The parasite itself can cause various effects on the host body, some of which are not fully understood.
Reproductive changes
- A recent study [8] has indicated Toxoplasmosis correlates strongly with an increase in boy births in humans.
- According to the researchers, depending on the antibody concentration, the probability of the birth of a boy can increase up to a value of 0.72 ... which means that for every 260 boys born, 100 girls are born.
- The study also notes a mean rate of 0.60 to 0.65 (as opposed to the normal 0.51) for Toxoplasma positive mothers.
Behavioral changes
- It has been found that the parasite has the ability to change the behavior of its host[9]
- The mechanism for this change is not completely understood, but there is evidence that toxoplasmosis infection raises dopamine levels.
- The behaviors observed, if caused by the parasite, are likely due to infection and low-grade encephalitis, which is marked by the presence of cysts in the brain, which may produce or induce production of a neurotransmitter, possibly dopamine,therefore acting similarly to dopamine reuptake inhibitor type antidepressants and stimulants.[10]
- Studies have found that toxoplasmosis is associated with an increased car accident rate, roughly doubling or tripling the chance of an accident relative to uninfected people.[12][13]
- This may be due to the slowed reaction times that are associated with infection.[13] "If our data are true then about a million people a year die just because they are infected with toxoplasma," the researcher Jaroslav Flegr told The Guardian.[14]
- The data shows that the risk decreases with time after infection, but is not due to age.[12][15]
- However there is also evidence of a delayed effect which increases reaction times.[16]
- Other studies suggest that the parasite may influence personality. There are claims of toxoplasma causing antisocial attitudes in men and promiscuity.[17]
- Even signs of higher intelligence in women, and greater susceptibility to schizophrenia and manic depression in all infected persons.[18][17][19]
IQ
- The study suggests that male carriers have lower IQs, a tendency to achieve a lower level of education and have shorter attention spans, a greater likelihood of breaking rules and taking risks, and are more independent, anti-social, suspicious, jealous and morose.
- It also suggests that these men are deemed less attractive to women.
- Women carriers are suggested to be more outgoing, friendly, more promiscuous, and are considered more attractive to men compared with non-infected controls.
Schizophrenia
- The possibility that toxoplasmosis is one cause of schizophrenia has been studied by scientists since at least 1953.[20]
- These studies had attracted little attention from U.S. researchers until they were publicized through the work of prominent psychiatrist and advocate E. Fuller Torrey.
- In 2003, Torrey published a review of this literature, reporting that almost all the studies had found that schizophrenics have elevated rates of toxoplasma infection.[20]
- A 2006 paper has even suggested that prevalence of toxoplasmosis has large-scale effects on national culture.[21]
- These types of studies are suggestive but cannot confirm a causal relationship (because of the possibility, for example, that schizophrenia increases the likelihood of toxoplasma infection rather than the other way around).[20]
- Acute Toxoplasma infection sometimes leads to psychotic symptoms not unlike schizophrenia.
- Some anti-psychotic medications that are used to treat schizophrenia, such as Haloperidol, also stop the growth of Toxoplasma in cell cultures.
- Several studies have found significantly higher levels of Toxoplasma antibodies in schizophrenia patients compared to the general population.[22]
- Toxoplasma infection causes damage to astrocytes in the brain, and such damage is also seen in schizophrenia.
Gross Pathology
- T.gondii has tropism for central nervous system and mostly affects the brain and eye. Areas of necrosis and granulomatous lesions in the brain can be demonstrated on autopsy.[23]
Microscopic Pathology
- In patients with congenital toxoplasmosis, microscopy of the lesions demonstrate periaqueductal and periventricular vasculitis with necrosis.[24][25]
- Fetal tissue and placenta can demonstrate t.gondii cysts with the Wright-Giemsa stain and also with immunoperoxidase staining using t.gondii–specific antibodies.[26]
References
- ↑ http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Toxoplasmosis.htmhttp://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/factsht_toxoplasmosis.htm
- ↑ http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/Toxoplasmosis.htmhttp://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/factsht_toxoplasmosis.htm
- ↑ Ferguson DJ (2009). "Toxoplasma gondii: 1908-2008, homage to Nicolle, Manceaux and Splendore". Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 104 (2): 133–48. PMID 19430635.
- ↑ Ferguson DJ (2009). "Toxoplasma gondii: 1908-2008, homage to Nicolle, Manceaux and Splendore". Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 104 (2): 133–48. PMID 19430635.
- ↑ Dunn D, Wallon M, Peyron F, Petersen E, Peckham C, Gilbert R (1999). "Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis: risk estimates for clinical counselling". Lancet. 353 (9167): 1829–33. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)08220-8. PMID 10359407.
- ↑ Robert-Gangneux F, Murat JB, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Brenier-Pinchart MP, Gangneux JP, Pelloux H (2011). "The placenta: a main role in congenital toxoplasmosis?". Trends Parasitol. 27 (12): 530–6. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2011.09.005. PMID 22079164.
- ↑ Dunn D, Wallon M, Peyron F, Petersen E, Peckham C, Gilbert R (1999). "Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis: risk estimates for clinical counselling". Lancet. 353 (9167): 1829–33. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)08220-8. PMID 10359407.
- ↑ Jaroslav Flegr. Women infected with parasite Toxoplasma have more sons, Naturwissenschaften, August 2006. full text
- ↑ Berdoy M, Webster J, Macdonald D (2000). Fatal Attraction in Rats Infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B267:1591-1594. CiteULike
- ↑ Flegr J, Havlícek J, Kodym P, Malý M, Smahel Z (2002). "Increased risk of traffic accidents in subjects with latent toxoplasmosis: a retrospective case-control study". BMC Infect. Dis. 2: 11. PMC 117239. PMID 12095427.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 ">Jaroslav Flegr (2007). "Effects of Toxoplasma on Human Behaviour". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 33 (3): 757–760. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ 12.0 12.1
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Yereli K, Balcioglu IC, Ozbilgin A. (2005). "Is Toxoplasma gondii a potential risk for traffic accidents in Turkey?". Forensic Sci Int. PMID 16332418. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ "Can a parasite carried by cats change your personality?". The Guardian. September 25, 2003.
- ↑ "Dirt infection link to car crashes". BBC News. August 10, 2002.
- ↑ J. Havlícek, Z. Gašová, A. P. Smith, K. Zvára and J. Flegr, Decrease of psychomotor performance in subjects with latent ‘asymptomatic’ toxoplasmosis, Parasitology (2001), 122: 515-520
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Dangerrrr: cats could alter your personality". Times Online. June 23, 2005.
- ↑ "Can a parasite carried by cats change your personality?". The Guardian. September 25, 2003.
- ↑ Novotná M, Hanusova J, Klose J, Preiss M, Havlicek J, Roubalová K, Flegr J (2004). "Probable neuroimmunological link between Toxoplasma and cytomegalovirus infections and personality changes in the human host". BMC Infect Dis. 5: 54. PMID 16000166. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Torrey EF, Yolken RH (2003). "Toxoplasma gondii and schizophrenia". Emerging Infect. Dis. 9 (11): 1375–80. PMID 14725265.free full text
- ↑ Lafferty, Kevin D. "Can the common brain parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, influence human culture?". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (FirstCite Early Online Publishing). doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3641. ISSN 0962-8452 (Paper) 1471-2954 (Online).
- ↑ Wang H, Wang G, Li Q, Shu C, Jiang M, Guo Y (2006). "Prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in first-episode schizophrenia and comparison between Toxoplasma-seropositive and Toxoplasma-seronegative schizophrenia". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 114 (1): 40–8. PMID 16774660.
- ↑ Wolf A, Cowen D, Paige BH (1940). "TOXOPLASMIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS : IV. EXPERIMENTAL TRANSMISSION OF THE INFECTION TO ANIMALS FROM A HUMAN INFANT". J Exp Med. 71 (2): 187–214. PMC 2135077. PMID 19870956.
- ↑ FRENKEL JK (1949). "Pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of human toxoplasmosis". J Am Med Assoc. 140 (4): 369–77. PMID 18128617.
- ↑ Frenkel JK (1974). "Pathology and pathogenesis of congenital toxoplasmosis". Bull N Y Acad Med. 50 (2): 182–91. PMC 1749352. PMID 4592096.
- ↑ Conley FK, Jenkins KA, Remington JS (1981). "Toxoplasma gondii infection of the central nervous system. Use of the peroxidase-antiperoxidase method to demonstrate toxoplasma in formalin fixed, paraffin embedded tissue sections". Hum Pathol. 12 (8): 690–8. PMID 7026410.