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{{familytree | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | |Decrease insulin-to-glucagon ratio}}
{{Family tree | | | | A01 | | | |A01= '''Theories of puberty'''}}
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01='''''Granville Stanley Hall'''''<ref>{{cite journal|title=Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education.G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Clark University and Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy. (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1904.)|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=2|year=1904|pages=375–381|issn=0002-953X|doi=10.1176/ajp.61.2.375}}</ref> <br> 1844-1924|B02= '''Biogenetic psychologic theory'''|B03= • First [[psychologist]] that describe the [[puberty]] and [[adolescence]] scientifically. <br>• Describes the period as '''"storm and stress"''' period. <br>• A new birth, "for the higher and more completely human traits are now born" <br>• The period is corresponding to last stage of development- Maturity.
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{{familytree | | C01 | | | | | C02 | | | | | C03 |Lipolysis|Gluconeogenesis|Glycogenolysis}}
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Sigmund Freud'''''<ref>{{cite book | last = Muuss | first = Rolf | title = Theories of adolescence | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 1996 | isbn = 0070442673 }}</ref> <br> 1856-1939|B02= '''Psychoanalytic theory'''|B03= • This stage of life could be seen phylogenetically. <br>• The developmental stages of psychosexuality are completely defined by genetic factors and are not dependent to environmental issues. <br> • A holistic pathway influenced by social, emotional, and also behavioral situations.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Eduard Spranger'''''<ref> {{Citation | author1=Spranger, Eduard | author2=Pigors, Paul John William, 1900- | title=Types of men : the psychology and ethics of personality | publication-date=1966 | publisher=(Saale) M. Niemeyer, 1928 | url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/16286967 | accessdate=29 August 2017 }}</ref> <br> 1882-1963|B02= '''Philosophy of culture theory'''|B03= • Describes the [[adolescence]] period and [[puberty]] as a distinct stage of life with its specific characteristics. <br>• The [[puberty]] is the age that disorganized mental structure of the child become in utmost maturity.<br>•  The "dominant value direction" of [[adolescent]] would be the main [[personality]] identifier.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Otto Rank'''''<ref>{{cite journal|title=Rank, O. Will therapy & Truth and reality. New York: Knopf, 1945. Pp. 307. $3.00|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology|volume=2|issue=2|year=1946|pages=199–199|issn=00219762|doi=10.1002/1097-4679(194604)2:2<199::AID-JCLP2270020220>3.0.CO;2-L}}</ref>
<br> 1884-1939|B02= '''Independence theory'''|B03= • Criticize the major role of sexuality in this process, and assume '''''"will"''''' as the main controller of sexuality. <br>• The main part of [[puberty]] is to change from dependence to independence. <br>• Beginning of the [[puberty]], the [[adolescent]] start to struggle with dependency, both externally (parents, society, and laws) and internally (self cravings as instinctual urges). <br>• No need to externally limit or inhibit sexualism, through which the [[adolescent]] is finding independence in front of biological needs' dominance.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Leta Hollingworth'''''<ref> {{Citation | title=The psychology of the [[adolescent]], by Leta S. Hollingworth  | author1=Hollingworth, Leta S. (Leta Stetter), 1886-1939  | publisher=D. Appleton and Company  | language=English}} </ref> <br> 1886-1939|B02= '''Continuity of development theory'''|B03= • Believes that [[puberty]] is based on continuity and progresses gradually, not through distinct stages.  <br>•  Biological and social changes during [[puberty]] are not correlated.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Anna Freud'''''<ref>{{cite book | last = Freud | first = Anna | title = The ego and the mechanisms of defense | publisher = Hogarth P. for the Institute of Psycho-Analysis | location = London | year = 1968 | isbn = 9780701201050 }} </ref> <br> 1895-1982|B02= '''Defense mechanism theory'''|B03= • The most important factor in formation of person's character is [[puberty]]. <br>• Normal progression may encounter the obstacle, in which [[id]] is overriding the [[ego]]. <br>• The defense mechanisms of [[ego]] against id are the main determinant of [[puberty]] process and outcome.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Jean Piaget'''''<ref> {{cite book | last = Piaget | first = Jean | title = The psychology of intelligence | publisher = Routledge | location = London New York | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0415254014 }}</ref> <br> 1896-1980|B02= '''Cognitive theory'''|B03= • The main step in [[puberty]] is growing of logical thinking. <br>• The final stage of egocentrism happens at [[puberty]], transitioning from childhood to adulthood.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Erik Erikson'''''<ref>{{cite book | last = Erikson | first = Erik | title = Identity, youth, and crisis | publisher = W.W. Norton | location = New York | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0393311440 }}</ref> <br> 1902-1994 |B02= '''Identity development theory'''|B03= • Assumes that the most important issue during the period is identity crisis. <br>• The [[adolescent]] has to find the identity, himself/herself, through evaluating the capabilities and weaknesses, and also the way they can be used. <br>• In case the person defeated in finding an stable identity , it may lead to place him/her in self-doubt and role confusion.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''Roger Barker'''''<ref name="urlAdjustment to Physical Handicap and Illness: A Survey of the Social Psychology of Physique and Disability : Roger G. Barker, Beatrice A. Wright, Mollie R. Gonick : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive">{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/adjustmenttophys00roge |title=Adjustment to Physical Handicap and Illness: A Survey of the Social Psychology of Physique and Disability : Roger G. Barker, Beatrice A. Wright, Mollie R. Gonick : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> <br> 1903-1990|B02= '''Somatopsychological theory'''|B03= • Evaluates the influence of [[physiological]] changes on behavior by [[puberty]].<br>• These changes are in body dimensions and hormonal secretion, that experience accelerated speed during [[adolescence]]. <br>• These physical changes allow the [[adolescent]]s to present in adult communities, and therefore improving behaviors and beliefs.
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{{familytree | boxstyle= text-align: Center; | | | |B01|-|B02|-|B03|B01= '''''James Marcia'''''<ref name="Marcia1967">{{cite journal|last1=Marcia|first1=James E.|title=Ego identity status: relationship to change in self-esteem, "general maladjustment," and authoritarianism1|journal=Journal of Personality|volume=35|issue=1|year=1967|pages=118–133|issn=0022-3506|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1967.tb01419.x}}</ref>
<br> 1930s-Now |B02= '''Identity status theory'''|B03= • Describes identity as "an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs and individual history". <br>• The more the person is going through [[puberty]], the more he/she stabilizes the identity.
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* Studying the archaic humans in ''Pleistocene'' (i.e., greater than 10,000 years ago), it assumed that [[puberty]] was correlated with [[productivity]] in females. The age of [[menarche]] was between 7 and 13 years.<ref name="pmid16311040">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gluckman PD, Hanson MA |title=Evolution, development and timing of puberty |journal=Trends Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=7–12 |year=2006 |pmid=16311040 |doi=10.1016/j.tem.2005.11.006 |url=}}</ref>
 
* Researchers have found that in a [[Turkana Boy|Turkana boy]] (from the species of '''''[[Homo erectus]]''''') from 1.6 million years ago, the [[puberty]] was earlier than today humans; however, their final [[height]] were more than modern humans.<ref>{{cite book | last = Lewin | first = Roger | title = Principles of human evolution | publisher = Blackwell Pub. Co | location = Malden, MA | year = 2004 | isbn = 9780632047048 }}</ref>
 
*The discovery and growth of agriculture in archaic world is the main reason of delaying [[puberty]] age, through a negative impact on child [[growth]]. Agricultural communities in contrast with hunter-gatherer communities, experienced tougher life style and rose with so many [[nutrition]] deficits; that may lead to their delayed [[puberty]].<ref name="pmid12167878">{{cite journal |vauthors=Diamond J |title=Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication |journal=Nature |volume=418 |issue=6898 |pages=700–7 |year=2002 |pmid=12167878 |doi=10.1038/nature01019 |url=}}</ref>
 
*On the other hand, more crowded life of agricultural communities, compare with hunter-gatherers, made them more vulnerable to [[infections]], especially [[zoonoses]]. Therefore, child [[mortality rate]] was raised and conclusively the [[puberty]] age was delayed, based on "'''''[[life history theory]]'''''".<ref>{{cite book | last = Stearns | first = S. C. | title = The evolution of life histories | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford New York | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0198577416 }}</ref>
 
*Regarding that [[Lifestyle|life style]] was growing and the complexity of societies were increasing in the past, the process of becoming adult from child was elongated and delayed puberty happened.<ref name="urlNeocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR">{{cite web |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204%28199304%2934%3A2%3C184%3ANSGSAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B |title=Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
 
*In last 150 years, the [[menarche]] age is becoming lower and lower, due to the improvement of [[hygiene]], [[nutrition]], and [[infection control]]. On the other hand, the role of adolescents in society and concluded expectations are increased; therefore, the [[maturation]] necessitated so many qualifications to gather and is delayed more and more. Nowadays, it is the first time in our history that biological [[maturation]] become well preceded from social [[maturation]]. It may encounter the [[adolescents]] to much more pressure, need to reevaluate the place of [[adolescents]] in modern life.<ref>{{cite book | last = Eveleth | first = Phyllis | title = Worldwide variation in human growth | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge England New York | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0521359160 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12065922">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karlberg J |title=Secular trends in pubertal development |journal=Horm. Res. |volume=57 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=19–30 |year=2002 |pmid=12065922 |doi=58096 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14570750">{{cite journal |vauthors=Parent AS, Teilmann G, Juul A, Skakkebaek NE, Toppari J, Bourguignon JP |title=The timing of normal puberty and the age limits of sexual precocity: variations around the world, secular trends, and changes after migration |journal=Endocr. Rev. |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=668–93 |year=2003 |pmid=14570750 |doi=10.1210/er.2002-0019 |url=}}</ref> 
 
*In 1904, Hall described the puberty as "'''''storm and stress'''''" period. The stage assumed to consist of oppositional and emotionally labile characteristics in [[Adolescent|adolescents]]. The future adulthood [[Quality of life|life quality]] is related to and also influenced from this period outline, significantly.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education.G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Clark University and Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy. (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1904.)|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=2|year=1904|pages=375–381|issn=0002-953X|doi=10.1176/ajp.61.2.375}}</ref>
 
* In 1958, Anna Freud showed that some [[biological]] and [[physiological]] changes during the [[puberty]] are the main factors contributing to "'''''storm and stress'''''".<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Freud, Anna |title=Adolescence |journal= The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child |volume=13 |issue= |pages=255–278|year=1958 |pmid=|doi= |url= http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00797308.1958.11823182}}</ref>
 
* In 1999, Bogin demonstrate that in human beings the time of [[maturation]] and [[puberty]] is later than other apes; which is due to more complicated childhood [[growth]] process. The suggested age of [[maturation]] in [[chimpanzee]] was 3 years earlier than humans.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bogin | first = Barry | title = Patterns of human growth | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, U.K. New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 9780521564380 }}</ref>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{|
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |Diseases
! colspan="3" |Laboratory Findings
! colspan="4" |Physical Examination
!
! colspan="2" |History and Symptoms
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
!Estrogen-to-androgen ratio
!Cholesterol levels
!WBC count
!Tenderness
!Enlargement
!Nipple discharge
!Lymphadenopathy
!Other physical exam findings
!Age of onset
!Medication intake
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Gynecomastia
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |'''↑'''
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +/-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
{| class="wikitable"
|
* Round discrete [[mass]] felt under [[areola]] and usually bilateral.
|-
|}
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Physiological gynecomastia is seen in newborns, adolescents and elderly
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Pharmacological gynecomastia has hx of medication intake.
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Pseudo  gynecomastia
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +/-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
{| class="wikitable"
|
* Increased [[adipose]] rather than [[glandular]] tissue on examination.
|-
|}
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Breast Cancer
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +/-; mostly painless
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
|
* Usually painless mass
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Middle age to elderly
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Lipoma
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |'''↑'''
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +/-
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
{| class="wikitable"
|
* Soft and mobile.
|-
|}
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Middle age to elderly
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Sebaceous cyst
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
{| class="wikitable"
|
* Asymmetric enlargement and swelling feels closer to the skin.
|-
|}
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
|Mastitis
|
|
| +
|Tender
| +/-
| +/-
| +/-
|
{| class="wikitable"
|
* Systemic clinical features of infection.
|}
|
|
|}
*
 
<br style="clear:left">
[[Image:Gynecomastia 2 (2).jpg|200px|left|frame|'''Ductal hyperplasia''', source:https://librepathology.org]]
 
*
 
==ABC==
 
===def===
 
{| class="wikitable"
!DRUGS
!MOA
!SIDE
!
|-
!SDFA
!SDFA
!DSFA
!
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
 
papichul
 
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |Based on the androgen and estrog imabalance
|-
!Decreased  testosterone
!Increased estrogen
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|}
 
{{familytree/start}}
{{familytree | stimulatory action |-|v|-| Breast Tissue |-|v|-| A03 |A01=[[Ascending aorta]]|A02=[[Left coronary artery]]|A03=[[Left anterior descending coronary artery|Inhibitory action]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |!| | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |`|-| B01 | |`|-| B02 |B01=[[Right coronary artery]]|B02=[[Circumflex artery|Androgens]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{familytree | C01 |-|v|-| C02 |-|v|-| C03 |C01=[[Estrogen]]|C02=[[Brachiocephalic artery|Brachiocephalic]] a|C03=R [[common carotid artery|common carotid]] a}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |!| | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |`|-| C04 |C04=R [[subclavian artery|subclavian a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |)|-| D01 |-|v|-| D02 |D01=L [[common carotid]] a|D02=[[Internal carotid artery|Internal carotid a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |!| | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |`|-| D03 |D03=[[External carotid artery|External carotid a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |`|-| E01 |-|v|-| E02 |E01=L [[subclavian artery|subclavian a]]|E02=[[Axillary artery|Axillary a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | | | | | | | |`|-| E03 |E03=[[Internal thoracic artery|Int. thoracic a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{familytree | F01 |-|-|-| F02 | | | | | | |F01=[[Progesterone]] <br>([[Thorax]])|F02=[[Bronchial artery|Bronchial as]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{familytree | G01 |-|v|-| G02 |-|v|-| G03 |G01=[[Growth hormone and IGF-1]]|G02=[[Celiac artery|Celiac a]]|G03=[[Left gastric artery|L gastric a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |!| | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |)|-| G05 |G05=[[Common hepatic artery|Common hepatic a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |!| | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | |`|-| G06 |G06=[[Splenic artery|Splenic a]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |)|-| H01 | | | | | | |H01=[[Superior mesenteric artery|SMA]]}}
{{familytree | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{familytree | |!| | |)|-| I01 | | | | | | |I01=[[Renal artery|Renal as]]}}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
===Based  on the androgen and estrogen balance===
 
*'''Decreased Testosterone'''
:* [[Androgen-insensitivity syndrome]]
:* [[Congenital anorchia]]
:* [[Five alpha-reductase deficiency]]
:* [[Hypopituitarism]]
:*[[Kallman Syndrome]]
:* [[Klinefelter Syndrome]]
:* [[Renal Failure]]
:* Testicular trauma
:* Torsion of the testes
:* Viral [[orchitis]]
 
*'''Increased Estrogens'''
:* [[Adrenal cancer]]
:* Chronic liver disease
:* [[Extragonadal germ cell tumors]]
:* Familial gynecomastia
:* [[Hyperthyroidism]]
:* [[Kidney carcinoma]]
:* [[Liver cancer]]
:* [[Lung carcinoma]]
:* Malnutrition
:* Other gastrointestinal (GI) tract carcinoma
:* [[Stomach cancer]]
:* [[Testicular cancer]]
 
==references==
<references />

Revision as of 20:33, 20 September 2017

 
 
 
Theories of puberty
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Granville Stanley Hall[1]
1844-1924
 
Biogenetic psychologic theory
 
• First psychologist that describe the puberty and adolescence scientifically.
• Describes the period as "storm and stress" period.
• A new birth, "for the higher and more completely human traits are now born"
• The period is corresponding to last stage of development- Maturity.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sigmund Freud[2]
1856-1939
 
Psychoanalytic theory
 
• This stage of life could be seen phylogenetically.
• The developmental stages of psychosexuality are completely defined by genetic factors and are not dependent to environmental issues.
• A holistic pathway influenced by social, emotional, and also behavioral situations.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Eduard Spranger[3]
1882-1963
 
Philosophy of culture theory
 
• Describes the adolescence period and puberty as a distinct stage of life with its specific characteristics.
• The puberty is the age that disorganized mental structure of the child become in utmost maturity.
• The "dominant value direction" of adolescent would be the main personality identifier.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Otto Rank[4]
1884-1939
 
Independence theory
 
• Criticize the major role of sexuality in this process, and assume "will" as the main controller of sexuality.
• The main part of puberty is to change from dependence to independence.
• Beginning of the puberty, the adolescent start to struggle with dependency, both externally (parents, society, and laws) and internally (self cravings as instinctual urges).
• No need to externally limit or inhibit sexualism, through which the adolescent is finding independence in front of biological needs' dominance.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Leta Hollingworth[5]
1886-1939
 
Continuity of development theory
 
• Believes that puberty is based on continuity and progresses gradually, not through distinct stages.
• Biological and social changes during puberty are not correlated.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Anna Freud[6]
1895-1982
 
Defense mechanism theory
 
• The most important factor in formation of person's character is puberty.
• Normal progression may encounter the obstacle, in which id is overriding the ego.
• The defense mechanisms of ego against id are the main determinant of puberty process and outcome.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Jean Piaget[7]
1896-1980
 
Cognitive theory
 
• The main step in puberty is growing of logical thinking.
• The final stage of egocentrism happens at puberty, transitioning from childhood to adulthood.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Erik Erikson[8]
1902-1994
 
Identity development theory
 
• Assumes that the most important issue during the period is identity crisis.
• The adolescent has to find the identity, himself/herself, through evaluating the capabilities and weaknesses, and also the way they can be used.
• In case the person defeated in finding an stable identity , it may lead to place him/her in self-doubt and role confusion.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Roger Barker[9]
1903-1990
 
Somatopsychological theory
 
• Evaluates the influence of physiological changes on behavior by puberty.
• These changes are in body dimensions and hormonal secretion, that experience accelerated speed during adolescence.
• These physical changes allow the adolescents to present in adult communities, and therefore improving behaviors and beliefs.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
James Marcia[10]
1930s-Now
 
Identity status theory
 
• Describes identity as "an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs and individual history".
• The more the person is going through puberty, the more he/she stabilizes the identity.
 
 


  • Studying the archaic humans in Pleistocene (i.e., greater than 10,000 years ago), it assumed that puberty was correlated with productivity in females. The age of menarche was between 7 and 13 years.[11]
  • Researchers have found that in a Turkana boy (from the species of Homo erectus) from 1.6 million years ago, the puberty was earlier than today humans; however, their final height were more than modern humans.[12]
  • The discovery and growth of agriculture in archaic world is the main reason of delaying puberty age, through a negative impact on child growth. Agricultural communities in contrast with hunter-gatherer communities, experienced tougher life style and rose with so many nutrition deficits; that may lead to their delayed puberty.[13]
  • On the other hand, more crowded life of agricultural communities, compare with hunter-gatherers, made them more vulnerable to infections, especially zoonoses. Therefore, child mortality rate was raised and conclusively the puberty age was delayed, based on "life history theory".[14]
  • Regarding that life style was growing and the complexity of societies were increasing in the past, the process of becoming adult from child was elongated and delayed puberty happened.[15]
  • In last 150 years, the menarche age is becoming lower and lower, due to the improvement of hygiene, nutrition, and infection control. On the other hand, the role of adolescents in society and concluded expectations are increased; therefore, the maturation necessitated so many qualifications to gather and is delayed more and more. Nowadays, it is the first time in our history that biological maturation become well preceded from social maturation. It may encounter the adolescents to much more pressure, need to reevaluate the place of adolescents in modern life.[16][17][18]
  • In 1904, Hall described the puberty as "storm and stress" period. The stage assumed to consist of oppositional and emotionally labile characteristics in adolescents. The future adulthood life quality is related to and also influenced from this period outline, significantly.[19]
  • In 1958, Anna Freud showed that some biological and physiological changes during the puberty are the main factors contributing to "storm and stress".[20]
  • In 1999, Bogin demonstrate that in human beings the time of maturation and puberty is later than other apes; which is due to more complicated childhood growth process. The suggested age of maturation in chimpanzee was 3 years earlier than humans.[21]
  1. ↑ "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education.G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Clark University and Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy. (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1904.)". American Journal of Psychiatry. 61 (2): 375–381. 1904. doi:10.1176/ajp.61.2.375. ISSN 0002-953X.
  2. ↑ Muuss, Rolf (1996). Theories of adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070442673.
  3. ↑ Spranger, Eduard; Pigors, Paul John William, 1900- (1966), Types of men : the psychology and ethics of personality, (Saale) M. Niemeyer, 1928, retrieved 29 August 2017
  4. ↑ "Rank, O. Will therapy & Truth and reality. New York: Knopf, 1945. Pp. 307. $3.00". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2 (2): 199–199. 1946. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(194604)2:2<199::AID-JCLP2270020220>3.0.CO;2-L. ISSN 0021-9762.
  5. ↑ Hollingworth, Leta S. (Leta Stetter), 1886-1939, The psychology of the adolescent, by Leta S. Hollingworth, D. Appleton and Company
  6. ↑ Freud, Anna (1968). The ego and the mechanisms of defense. London: Hogarth P. for the Institute of Psycho-Analysis. ISBN 9780701201050.
  7. ↑ Piaget, Jean (2001). The psychology of intelligence. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415254014.
  8. ↑ Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393311440.
  9. ↑ "Adjustment to Physical Handicap and Illness: A Survey of the Social Psychology of Physique and Disability : Roger G. Barker, Beatrice A. Wright, Mollie R. Gonick : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive".
  10. ↑ Marcia, James E. (1967). "Ego identity status: relationship to change in self-esteem, "general maladjustment," and authoritarianism1". Journal of Personality. 35 (1): 118–133. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1967.tb01419.x. ISSN 0022-3506.
  11. ↑ Gluckman PD, Hanson MA (2006). "Evolution, development and timing of puberty". Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 17 (1): 7–12. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2005.11.006. PMID 16311040.
  12. ↑ Lewin, Roger (2004). Principles of human evolution. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. Co. ISBN 9780632047048.
  13. ↑ Diamond J (2002). "Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication". Nature. 418 (6898): 700–7. doi:10.1038/nature01019. PMID 12167878.
  14. ↑ Stearns, S. C. (1992). The evolution of life histories. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198577416.
  15. ↑ "Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR".
  16. ↑ Eveleth, Phyllis (1990). Worldwide variation in human growth. Cambridge England New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521359160.
  17. ↑ Karlberg J (2002). "Secular trends in pubertal development". Horm. Res. 57 Suppl 2: 19–30. doi:58096 Check |doi= value (help). PMID 12065922.
  18. ↑ Parent AS, Teilmann G, Juul A, Skakkebaek NE, Toppari J, Bourguignon JP (2003). "The timing of normal puberty and the age limits of sexual precocity: variations around the world, secular trends, and changes after migration". Endocr. Rev. 24 (5): 668–93. doi:10.1210/er.2002-0019. PMID 14570750.
  19. ↑ "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education.G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Clark University and Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy. (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1904.)". American Journal of Psychiatry. 61 (2): 375–381. 1904. doi:10.1176/ajp.61.2.375. ISSN 0002-953X.
  20. ↑ Freud, Anna (1958). "Adolescence". The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 13: 255–278.
  21. ↑ Bogin, Barry (1999). Patterns of human growth. Cambridge, U.K. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521564380.
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