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===Causes in Alphabetical Order=== | |||
{{col-begin|width=80%}} | |||
{{col-break|width=33%}} | |||
*[[1p36 deletion syndrome]] | |||
*[[trinitrotoluene|2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene]] | |||
*[[4-Nitrophenol]] | |||
*[[Aberrant subclavian artery]] | |||
*[[vicodin|Acetaminophen and hydrocodone]] | |||
*[[Acrocephalopolysyndactyly]] | |||
*[[Acrocyanosis]] | |||
*[[Acrodynia]] | |||
*[[Acrofacial dysostosis]] | |||
*[[histoplasmosis|Acute histoplasmosis]] | |||
*[[Acute interstitial pneumonitis]] | |||
*[[Adams-Oliver syndrome]] | |||
*[[Adrenal hemorrhage]] | |||
*[[Air embolism]] | |||
*Air leak syndromes | |||
*[[Airway obstruction ]] | |||
*Al Gazali-Aziz-Salem syndrome | |||
*[[Alveolar capillary dysplasia ]] | |||
*[[Amiodarone]] | |||
*[[Amyl nitrite]] | |||
*[[list of poisonous plants|Anchovy poisoning]] | |||
*[[Angioneurotic edema]] | |||
*[[Aniline]] | |||
*[[Anisidine]] | |||
*[[Anthracosis]] | |||
*[[Antifreeze]] | |||
*[[aortic arch anomalies|Aotic arch defects]] | |||
*[[Aortic coarctation]] | |||
*[[Aortic stenosis]] | |||
*[[Apnea of prematurity]] | |||
*[[list of poisonous plants|Apple seed poisoning]] | |||
*[[list of poisonous plants|Apricot seed poisoning]] | |||
*[[arsine|Arsine gas]] | |||
*[[thromboembolism|Arterial occlusion]] | |||
*[[Asbestosis]] | |||
*[[Aspiration]] | |||
*[[Asthma]] | |||
*[[Atelectasis]] | |||
*[[Atrial myxoma]] | |||
*[[Atrial septal defect]] | |||
*[[Bacterial tracheitis]] | |||
*[[Benign familial neonatal convulsions]] | |||
*[[Benzocaine]] | |||
*[[Benzodiazepines]] | |||
*[[Berylliosis]] | |||
*[[Besnier-Boeck-Schaumann disease]] | |||
*[[Beta blockers]] | |||
*[[Bicisate dihydrochloride]] | |||
*[[Bindewald-Ulmer-Muller syndrome]] | |||
*[[list of poisonous plants|Bird cherry seed poisoning]] | |||
*[[Birth asphyxia]] | |||
*[[list of poisonous plants|Bitter almond poisoning]] | |||
*[[Blalock-Taussig shunt]] | |||
*[[Bland-White-Garland syndrome]] | |||
*[[Blood transfusion]] | |||
*[[Blue baby syndrome]] | |||
*[[Boerhaave syndrome]] | |||
*[[Bordetella pertussis]] | |||
*[[Bronchiectasis]] | |||
*[[Bronchiolitis]] | |||
*[[Bronchopulmonary dysplasia]] | |||
*[[Bronchospasm]] | |||
*[[Buergers disease]] | |||
*[[snakebites|Brown snake poisoning]] | |||
*[[Bufotenin]] | |||
*[[Carbamates]] | |||
*[[Cardiac tamponade]] | |||
*[[Cardiomyopathy]] | |||
*[[acrocyanosis|Cassirer disease]] | |||
*[[Cast syndrome]] | |||
*[[Cerebral hypoxia]] | |||
*[[Chloramphenicol]] | |||
*[[Chlorate salts]] | |||
*[[Chlorobenzene]] | |||
*[[Chloroquine]] | |||
*[[Choanal atresia]] | |||
*[[Choking]] | |||
*[[Cholesterol emboli syndrome]] | |||
*[[Cholesterol pneumonia]] | |||
*[[Chromhidrosis]] | |||
*[[22q11.2 deletion syndrome|Chromosome 22q11 deletion]] | |||
*[[Chronic bronchitis]] | |||
*[[mercury|Chronic mercury exposure]] | |||
*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] | |||
*[[Chylothorax]] | |||
*[[Cirrhosis of liver]] | |||
*[[Clonazepam]] | |||
*[[Clorazepate]] | |||
*Clupeotoxin | |||
*[[Coal worker's pneumoconiosis]] | |||
*[[Codeine]] | |||
*[[Cold exposure]] | |||
*[[Community-acquired pneumonia]] | |||
*[[Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome]] | |||
*[[Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation]] | |||
*[[Congenital diaphragmatic hernia]] | |||
*[[Congenital heart disease]] | |||
*[[Congenital hyperinsulinism]] | |||
*[[Congenital pulmonary lymphangiectasia ]] | |||
*[[Congestive heart failure]] | |||
*[[Cor biloculare]] | |||
*[[Cor triatriatum]] | |||
*[[Coronary artery anomaly]] | |||
*[[aortic stenosis|Critical valvular aortic stenosis]] | |||
*[[Crocq disease]] | |||
*[[Croup]] | |||
*[[Cyanide poisoning]] | |||
*[[Cyanotic congenital heart disease]] | |||
*[[Cystic fibrosis]] | |||
*[[Cystic hygroma]] | |||
*[[Dapsone]] | |||
*[[Deep vein thrombosis]] | |||
*[[Dehydration]] | |||
*[[Demeton-S-methyl]] | |||
*[[Desmopressin]] | |||
*Diaphragmatic paralysis | |||
*[[Diazepam]] | |||
*[[Diazinon]] | |||
*[[Dichlorvos]] | |||
*[[Dicrotophos]] | |||
*[[DiGeorge syndrome]] | |||
*[[Dilaudid]] | |||
*[[Dinitrocresol]] | |||
*[[Dioxathion]] | |||
*Diphosphoglycerate mutase deficiency | |||
*[[Disseminated intravascular coagulation]] | |||
*[[Disulfoton]] | |||
*[[Double inlet left ventricle]] | |||
*[[Double outlet right ventricle]] | |||
*[[Drowning]] | |||
{{col-break|width=33%}} | |||
*[[Drug overdose]] | |||
*[[Duodenal atresia]] | |||
*[[Ebstein anomaly]] | |||
*[[Eisenmenger syndrome]] | |||
*[[Emphysema]] | |||
*[[Empyema]] | |||
*[[Encephalitis]] | |||
*[[Endosulfan]] | |||
*[[Epichlorohydrin]] | |||
*[[Epiglottitis]] | |||
*Erythrocyanosis | |||
*[[Esophageal atresia]] | |||
*[[Ethion]] | |||
*[[Ethylene]] | |||
*[[Ethylene glycol]] | |||
*[[Ethylene oxide]] | |||
*[[Exercise-induced asthma]] | |||
*[[Extrinsic allergic alveolitis]] | |||
*[[interstitial fibrosis|Familial interstitial fibrosis]] | |||
*[[pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis|Familial pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis]] | |||
*[[Fensulfothion]] | |||
*[[Fenthion]] | |||
*[[Fibrosing alveolitis]] | |||
*[[Flail chest]] | |||
*[[Foreign body aspiration]] | |||
*[[Goodpasture syndrome]] | |||
*[[Gray baby syndrome]] | |||
*[[Hamman-Rich syndrome ]] | |||
*[[strangling|Hanging]] | |||
*[[Head trauma]] | |||
*[[Heart attack]] | |||
*[[Hemoglobinopathy]] | |||
*[[Hemothorax]] | |||
*[[Heroin]] | |||
*[[methylmercury|Herring poisoning]] | |||
*[[High altitude]] | |||
*[[HMG-CoA lyase deficiency]] | |||
*[[Hyaline membrane disease]] | |||
*[[Hydrocodone]] | |||
*[[Hydrogen sulfide]] | |||
*[[Hydroquinone]] | |||
*[[Hypermagnesemia]] | |||
*[[Hypersensitivity pneumonitis]] | |||
*[[Hypoadrenalism]] | |||
*[[Hypocalcemia]] | |||
*[[Hypoglycemia]] | |||
*[[Hypomagnesemia]] | |||
*[[Hypoplastic left heart syndrome]] | |||
*[[Hypothermia]] | |||
*[[Hypoventilation]] | |||
*[[Hypovolemia]] | |||
*[[Hypoxemia]] | |||
*[[Hypoxia (medical)]] | |||
*[[cerebral hypoxia|Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy]] | |||
*[[Ibuprofen]] | |||
*[[idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis|Idiopathic diffuse interstitial pulmonary fibrosis]] | |||
*[[Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis]] | |||
*[[Idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis]] | |||
*[[Idiopathic pulmonary hypertension]] | |||
*[[tracheal stenosis|Idiopathic subglottic tracheal stenosis]] | |||
*[[Immobility]] | |||
*[[Infant respiratory distress syndrome]] | |||
*[[apnea|Infantile apnea]] | |||
*[[Insect sting allergy]] | |||
*[[Intermittent claudication]] | |||
*[[Interrupted aortic arch]] | |||
*[[Interstitial lung disease]] | |||
*[[Intracranial hemorrhage]] | |||
*[[Intraventricular hemorrhage]] | |||
*[[Iron poisoning]] | |||
*[[Isaac's syndrome]] | |||
*[[Ischemic heart disease]] | |||
*Isolated ventriculoarterial discordance | |||
*[[Ivemark syndrome]] | |||
*[[Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome]] | |||
*Kugel-Stoloff syndrome | |||
*[[mimicry|Lantana poisoning]] | |||
*Laryngeal cleft | |||
*[[Laryngeal edema]] | |||
*[[Laryngomalacia]] | |||
*[[Laryngotracheomalacia]] | |||
*[[Lead]] | |||
*[[Legionellosis]] | |||
*[[Legionnaire's disease]] | |||
*[[Fryns syndrome|Lethal chondrodysplasia Moerman type]] | |||
*[[congenital pulmonary anomalies|Lobar emphysema]] | |||
*[[Lorazepam]] | |||
*[[Lortab]] | |||
*[[Ludwig's angina]] | |||
*[[Lung abscess]] | |||
*[[Lupus]] | |||
*[[Macroglossia]] | |||
*[[Malathion]] | |||
*[[superior vena cava syndrome|Malignancy-related superior vena cava syndrome]] | |||
*[[Marfan syndrome]] | |||
*Maternal sedation | |||
*Matthew-Wood syndrome | |||
*[[Meadows syndrome]] | |||
*[[Meconium aspiration syndrome]] | |||
*[[Melioidosis]] | |||
*[[Mendelson's syndrome]] | |||
*[[Meningitis]] | |||
*[[Meperidine]] | |||
*[[Methadone]] | |||
*[[Methemoglobinemia]] | |||
*[[Methidathion]] | |||
*[[Methiocarb]] | |||
*[[Methomyl]] | |||
*[[Metoclopramide]] | |||
*[[Microcephalic osteodysplastic primordial dwarfism type 1]] | |||
*[[Micrognathia]] | |||
*[[Midazolam]] | |||
*[[mitral atresia|Mitral atresia in infants]] | |||
*[[Monomelic amyotrophy]] | |||
*[[Morphine]] | |||
*[[Mountain sickness]] | |||
*[[Myocardial infarction]] | |||
*[[Narcotics]] | |||
*[[myasthenia gravis|Neonatal myasthenia gravis]] | |||
*[[Neuromyotonia]] | |||
*[[Nitrates]] | |||
*[[Nitrazepam]] | |||
*[[Nitrites]] | |||
*[[Nitroglycerin]] | |||
*[[Obstructive sleep apnea]] | |||
*[[Organophosphate poisoning]] | |||
*[[Osler-Vaquez disease]] | |||
*[[Oxazepam]] | |||
*[[Pancoast tumor]] | |||
{{col-break|width=33%}} | |||
*[[Paraquat]] | |||
*[[Parathion]] | |||
*[[atrioventricular canal|Partial atrioventricular canal]] | |||
*[[Patent ductus arteriosus]] | |||
*[[Patent foramen ovale]] | |||
*[[chest trauma|Penetrating chest wounds]] | |||
*[[Pergolide]] | |||
*[[Perinatal asphyxia]] | |||
*[[Peripartum cardiomyopathy]] | |||
*[[Peripheral arterial disease]] | |||
*[[pulmonary hypertension classification|Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn]] | |||
*[[Persistent truncus arteriosus]] | |||
*[[Pertussis]] | |||
*[[Pneumothorax]] | |||
*[[Phenazopyridine]] | |||
*[[Phenol]] | |||
*[[Phenothiazines]] | |||
*[[Phlegmasia alba dolens]] | |||
*[[Phlegmasia cerulea dolens]] | |||
*[[Phosdrin]] | |||
*[[phrenic nerve|Phrenic nerve injury]] | |||
*[[Pickwickian syndrome]] | |||
*[[Pierre Robin syndrome]] | |||
*[[Pleural effusion]] | |||
*[[Pneumoconiosis]] | |||
*[[Pneumonia]] | |||
*[[Pneumothorax]] | |||
*[[Polycythemia vera]] | |||
*[[Primaquine ]] | |||
*[[Profenofos]] | |||
*[[Propane]] | |||
*[[Liddle's syndrome|Pseudoaldosteronism]] | |||
*Pseudocyanosis | |||
*[[Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary arteriovenous fistula]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary arteriovenous malformation]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary artery sling]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary atresia]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary edema]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary embolism]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary fibrosis]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary hemorrhage]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary hypertension]] | |||
*[[congenital pulmonary anomalies|Pulmonary hypoplasia]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary stenosis]] | |||
*[[Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease]] | |||
*[[TAPVC|Pulmonary venous return anomaly]] | |||
*[[Raynaud's disease]] | |||
*[[Raynaud's phenomenon]] | |||
*[[Respiratory depression]] | |||
*[[Respiratory distress syndrome]] | |||
*[[Respiratory failure]] | |||
*Respiratory muscle paralysis | |||
*[[Retrognathia]] | |||
*[[Ribavirin]] | |||
*[[Rifampin]] | |||
*[[hypoplastic right heart syndrome|Right ventricle hypoplasia]] | |||
*[[Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction]] | |||
*[[Sakati syndrome]] | |||
*[[Sakati-Nyhan-Tisdale syndrome]] | |||
*[[Sarcoidosis]] | |||
*[[snakebites|Sea snake venom]] | |||
*[[Sedatives]] | |||
*[[Seizure]] | |||
*[[Sepsis]] | |||
*[[Shaken baby syndrome]] | |||
*[[Shaver's disease]] | |||
*[[Shock]] | |||
*[[Shprintzen syndrome]] | |||
*[[pneumoconiosis pathophysiology|Silicosiderosis]] | |||
*[[Silicosis]] | |||
*[[Silver]] | |||
*[[Silver iodide]] | |||
*[[Silver nitrate]] | |||
*[[Sleep apnea]] | |||
*[[Smoke inhalation]] | |||
*[[Snakebites]] | |||
*[[Sneddon syndrome]] | |||
*[[Spontaneous pneumothorax]] | |||
*Stachybotrys chartarum exposure | |||
*[[Streptococcal Group B invasive disease]] | |||
*[[Strychnine]] | |||
*[[pulmonary stenosis|Subpulmonary stenosis]] | |||
*[[Sudden infant death syndrome]] | |||
*[[Suffocation]] | |||
*[[Sulfhemoglobinemia]] | |||
*[[Sulfonamides]] | |||
*[[Sulfur dioxide]] | |||
*[[Superior vena cava syndrome]] | |||
*[[surfactant deficient disease|Surfactant metabolism dysfunction]] | |||
*[[craniofacial anomalies|Syndromic microphthalmia type 9]] | |||
*[[TAPVC]] | |||
*[[Taussig-Bing syndrome]] | |||
*[[Tension pneumothorax]] | |||
*[[Terbufos]] | |||
*[[Tetraethyl Pyrophosphate]] | |||
*[[Tetralogy of Fallot]] | |||
*[[Tetrodotoxin]] | |||
*[[electrical injury|Thermal injury]] | |||
*[[Thioglycolic acid]] | |||
*[[arthrogryposis|Thoracic dystrophy]] | |||
*[[Tonic-clonic seizures]] | |||
*[[Total anomalous pulmonary venous connection]] | |||
*[[tracheal disease|Tracheal agenesis without tracheoesophageal fistula]] | |||
*[[Tracheal stenosis]] | |||
*[[Tracheoesophageal fistula]] | |||
*[[Transient tachypnea of the newborn]] | |||
*[[Transposition of the great vessels]] | |||
*[[Trichloroethylene]] | |||
*[[Tricuspid atresia]] | |||
*[[Tricuspid stenosis]] | |||
*[[Truncus arteriosus]] | |||
*[[hyperchloremic acidosis|Type 1 pseudohypoaldosteronism]] | |||
*[[Unilateral pulmonary agenesis]] | |||
*[[congenital pulmonary anomalies|Unilateral pulmonary hypoplasia]] | |||
*[[polycythemia vera|Vaquez disease]] | |||
*Vascular malposition | |||
*[[Vascular rings]] | |||
*[[Vein of Galen|Vein of Galen aneurysm]] | |||
*[[Velocardiofacial syndrome]] | |||
*[[Ventricular septal defect]] | |||
*[[VLCAD deficiency]] | |||
*[[Vocal cord paralysis]] | |||
*[[Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome]] | |||
*[[Weinstein Kliman Scully syndrome]] | |||
*[[Werdnig-Hoffman disease]] | |||
*[[Western equine encephalitis]] | |||
*[[Whooping cough]] | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
<references /> | <references /> |
Revision as of 18:09, 21 February 2018
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Chandrakala Yannam, MD [2]
Overview
Disease name] may be caused by [cause1], [cause2], or [cause3].
OR
Common causes of [disease] include [cause1], [cause2], and [cause3].
OR
The most common cause of [disease name] is [cause 1]. Less common causes of [disease name] include [cause 2], [cause 3], and [cause 4].
OR
The cause of [disease name] has not been identified. To review risk factors for the development of [disease name], click here.
Causes
Life-threatening Causes
- Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated. There are no life-threatening causes of disease name, however complications resulting from untreated disease name is common.
- Life-threatening causes of [symptom/manifestation] include [cause1], [cause2], and [cause3].
- [Cause] is a life-threatening cause of [disease].
Common Causes
Central Cyanosis
There following are some of the Common causes of Central Cyanosis:[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]
- Conditions associated with decreased concentration of inspired oxygen (FiO2):
- Smoke inhalation most commonly from house fires
- Carbon monoxide poisoning
- Hydrogen cyanide poisoning
- Intentional or unintensional exposure to asphyxiating gases (eg, Propane, methane, butane, hydrogen sulphide)
- Decresed atmospheric pressure: High altitude
- Disorders associated with impairment of chest wall or lung expansion:
- External compression
- Pneumothorax
- Hemothorax
- Flail chest
- Hypoventilation:
- Upper airway obstruction:
- Foreign body aspiration
- Pertussis / Croup
- Epiglottitis
- Tracheitis mostly bacterial
- Traumatic disruption (burns, fractures)
- Congenital airway abnormalities:
- Choanal atresia
- Laryngotracheomalacia
- Macroglossia
- Micrognathia or retrognathia (eg, Pierre-Robin syndrome)
- Neurologic abnormalities:
- CNS depression
- Severe head trauma
- Apnea of prematurity
- Infections (eg, meningitis, encephalitis)
- Intraventricular hemorrhage
- Seizures
- Cyanotic breath holding spells
- Coma
- Neuromuscular disorders:
- Myasthenia gravis
- Injury to the phrenic nerve
- Type 1 spinal muscular dystrophy (Wernig-Hoffman disease)
- Metabolic disorders:
- Severe hypoglycemia
- In born errors of metabolism
- Upper airway obstruction:
- Ventilation/perfusion mismatch:
- Asthma
- Pulmonary embolism
- Atelectasis
- Alveolar capillary dysplasia
- emphysema or COPD
- Pulmonary edema
- Pulmonary hypoplasia
- Pulmonary hemorrhage
- Respiratory distress syndrome (Hyaline membrane disease)
- Transient tachypnea of the newborn
- Conditions causing impaired oxygen diffusion:
- Pneumonia
- Bronchiolitis
- Bronchopulmonary dysplasia
- Cystic fibrosis
- Empyema
- Vascular causes:
- Cyanotic congenital heart diseases (Right to left shunts):
- Decreased pulmonary flow:
- Tetralogy of fallot
- Tricuspid valve anomalies:
- Pulmonary stenosis (critical valvular)
- Pulmonary atresia with intact ventricular septum
- Increased pulmonary flow:
- TGA (Transposition of great arteries, most common dextro type)
- Truncus arteriosus
- TAPVC (Total anamalous pulmonary venous connection)
- Heart failure: Condition that present with cyanosis and severe heart failure include:
- Left sided obstructive lesion (HLHS)
- Coarctation of aorta
- Critical valvular aortic stenosis
- Decreased pulmonary flow:
- Eisenmenger syndrome
- Pulmonary causes:
- Pulmonary hypertension
- Pulmonary edema
- Pulmonary hemorrhage
- Pulmonary embolism
- Pulmonary arterio venous malformations
- Multiple small intrapulmonary shunts
- Shock
- Sepsis
- Acute chest syndrome
- Cyanotic congenital heart diseases (Right to left shunts):
- Hematologic abnormalities:
- Methemoglobinemia (congenital or acquired)
- Sulfhemoglobinemia (acquired)
- Hemoglobin mutations with low oxygen affinity: Hb Kansas, Hb Beth israel, Hb Saint Mande, Hb Bruxells
- Polycythemia
- Brief resolved unexplained events (BRUE)
Peripheral Cyanosis
There following are some of the Common causes of Peripheral Cyanosis: [9] [10]
- Various conditions that cause central cyanosis can also cause peripheral cyanosis.
- Cold exposure
- Decreased cardiac output (Left sided heart failure, shock or hypovolemia)
- Acrocyanosis
- Raynaud's phenomenon
- Arterial obstruction (Peripheral vascular disease)
- Venous obstruction (Thromboembolism)
- Redistribution of blood flow from extremities
[Disease name] may be caused by:
- [Cause1]
- [Cause2]
- [Cause3]
OR
- [Disease name] is caused by an infection with [pathogen name].
- [Pathogen name] is caused by [pathogen name].
Less Common Causes
Less common causes of disease name include:
- [Cause1]
- [Cause2]
- [Cause3]
Genetic Causes
- [Disease name] is caused by a mutation in the [gene name] gene.
Causes by Organ System
Causes in Alphabetical Order
- ↑ DiMaio AM, Singh J (October 1992). "The infant with cyanosis in the emergency room". Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 39 (5): 987–1006. PMID 1523025.
- ↑ Driscoll DJ (February 1990). "Evaluation of the cyanotic newborn". Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 37 (1): 1–23. PMID 2407997.
- ↑ Frank DB, Hanna BD (April 2015). "Pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with congenital heart disease and Eisenmenger syndrome: current practice in pediatrics". Minerva Pediatr. 67 (2): 169–85. PMC 4382100. PMID 25604592.
- ↑ Izraelit A, Ten V, Krishnamurthy G, Ratner V (2011). "Neonatal cyanosis: diagnostic and management challenges". ISRN Pediatr. 2011: 175931. doi:10.5402/2011/175931. PMC 3317242. PMID 22482063.
- ↑ Serino G, Giacomazzi F (2010). "[Pulmonary arterial hypertension in adult patients with congenital heart disease]". Pediatr Med Chir (in Italian). 32 (6): 274–9. PMID 21462449.
- ↑ Curry S (April 1982). "Methemoglobinemia". Ann Emerg Med. 11 (4): 214–21. PMID 7073040.
- ↑ Ash-Bernal R, Wise R, Wright SM (September 2004). "Acquired methemoglobinemia: a retrospective series of 138 cases at 2 teaching hospitals". Medicine (Baltimore). 83 (5): 265–73. PMID 15342970.
- ↑ Kondamudi NP, Dulebohn SC. PMID 28722923. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ Fardoun MM, Nassif J, Issa K, Baydoun E, Eid AH (2016). "Raynaud's Phenomenon: A Brief Review of the Underlying Mechanisms". Front Pharmacol. 7: 438. doi:10.3389/fphar.2016.00438. PMC 5110514. PMID 27899893.
- ↑ Das S, Maiti A (November 2013). "Acrocyanosis: an overview". Indian J Dermatol. 58 (6): 417–20. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.119946. PMC 3827510. PMID 24249890.