Interstitial lung disease: Difference between revisions
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{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | S01 | | | | | | | | | | S02 | | | | | | | S01=[[Parenchymal]] injury|S02=[[Vascular]] injury}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | S01 | | | | | | | | | | S02 | | | | | | | S01=[[Parenchymal]] injury|S02=[[Vascular]] injury}} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | R01 | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | R02 | | | | | | | R01=[[Mast cell]]s in [[lungs]] in response to tissue injury|R02= LPA6, LPA2, and LPA4 receptors }} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | R01 | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | R02 | | | | | | | R01=[[Mast cell]]s in [[lungs]] in response to tissue injury|R02= LPA6, LPA2, and LPA4 receptors<ref name="pmid23084965">{{cite journal| author=Ren Y, Guo L, Tang X, Apparsundaram S, Kitson C, Deguzman J et al.| title=Comparing the differential effects of LPA on the barrier function of human pulmonary endothelial cells. | journal=Microvasc Res | year= 2013 | volume= 85 | issue= | pages= 59-67 | pmid=23084965 | doi=10.1016/j.mvr.2012.10.004 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23084965 }} </ref>}} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | Q01 | | Q06 | | Q03 | | | | | Q02 | | | | | | | | Q04 | | Q05 | | | | | Q01=Decreased [[Secreted frizzled-related protein 1|sFRP-1 (secreted frizzled-related protein 1)]] in [[fibroblasts]]|Q02= [[Insulin-like growth factor]] ([[IGF]]) signalling<ref name="pmid21360508">{{cite journal| author=Hsu E, Shi H, Jordan RM, Lyons-Weiler J, Pilewski JM, Feghali-Bostwick CA| title=Lung tissues in patients with systemic sclerosis have gene expression patterns unique to pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension. | journal=Arthritis Rheum | year= 2011 | volume= 63 | issue= 3 | pages= 783-94 | pmid=21360508 | doi=10.1002/art.30159 | pmc=3139818 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21360508 }} </ref>|Q03=[[Transforming growth factor-β]] ([[TGF-β]])|Q04= Reduced expression of angiogenic factors,<br>[[vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF)|Q05=Elevation of angiostatic factors,<br>pigment epithelium-derived factor|Q06=Secretes [[tryptase]]}} | {{Family tree| | Q01 | | Q06 | | Q03 | | | | | Q02 | | | | | | | | Q04 | | Q05 | | | | | Q01=Decreased [[Secreted frizzled-related protein 1|sFRP-1 (secreted frizzled-related protein 1)]] in [[fibroblasts]]<ref name="pmid21360508">{{cite journal| author=Hsu E, Shi H, Jordan RM, Lyons-Weiler J, Pilewski JM, Feghali-Bostwick CA| title=Lung tissues in patients with systemic sclerosis have gene expression patterns unique to pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension. | journal=Arthritis Rheum | year= 2011 | volume= 63 | issue= 3 | pages= 783-94 | pmid=21360508 | doi=10.1002/art.30159 | pmc=3139818 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21360508 }} </ref>|Q02= [[Insulin-like growth factor]] ([[IGF]]) signalling<ref name="pmid21360508">{{cite journal| author=Hsu E, Shi H, Jordan RM, Lyons-Weiler J, Pilewski JM, Feghali-Bostwick CA| title=Lung tissues in patients with systemic sclerosis have gene expression patterns unique to pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension. | journal=Arthritis Rheum | year= 2011 | volume= 63 | issue= 3 | pages= 783-94 | pmid=21360508 | doi=10.1002/art.30159 | pmc=3139818 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21360508 }} </ref>|Q03=[[Transforming growth factor-β]] ([[TGF-β]])<ref name="pmid19926870">{{cite journal| author=Andersson CK, Mori M, Bjermer L, Löfdahl CG, Erjefält JS| title=Alterations in lung mast cell populations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. | journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med | year= 2010 | volume= 181 | issue= 3 | pages= 206-17 | pmid=19926870 | doi=10.1164/rccm.200906-0932OC | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19926870 }} </ref>|Q04= Reduced expression of angiogenic factors,<br>[[vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF)<ref name="pmid14754760">{{cite journal| author=Ebina M, Shimizukawa M, Shibata N, Kimura Y, Suzuki T, Endo M et al.| title=Heterogeneous increase in CD34-positive alveolar capillaries in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. | journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med | year= 2004 | volume= 169 | issue= 11 | pages= 1203-8 | pmid=14754760 | doi=10.1164/rccm.200308-1111OC | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14754760 }} </ref>|Q05=Elevation of angiostatic factors,<br>pigment epithelium-derived factor<ref name="pmid15117744">{{cite journal| author=Cosgrove GP, Brown KK, Schiemann WP, Serls AE, Parr JE, Geraci MW et al.| title=Pigment epithelium-derived factor in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a role in aberrant angiogenesis. | journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med | year= 2004 | volume= 170 | issue= 3 | pages= 242-51 | pmid=15117744 | doi=10.1164/rccm.200308-1151OC | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15117744 }} </ref>|Q06=Secretes [[tryptase]]}} | ||
{{Family tree| | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|^|-|-|.| | | | | | |`|-|v|-|'| | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|^|-|-|.| | | | | | |`|-|v|-|'| | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | P01 | | P02 | | P05 | | P04 | | | | P03 |.| | | | | | P06 | | | | | P01=[[Wnt signaling pathway|Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway]]|P02=PAR-2/protein kinase (PK)C-α/Raf-1/p44/42 signaling pathway|P03=[[IGFBP3|IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3]])|P04=[[Insulin-like growth factor binding protein|IGF-binding protein 5 (IGFBP-5)]]<ref name="pmid21511034">{{cite journal| author=Bhattacharyya S, Wu M, Fang F, Tourtellotte W, Feghali-Bostwick C, Varga J| title=Early growth response transcription factors: key mediators of fibrosis and novel targets for anti-fibrotic therapy. | journal=Matrix Biol | year= 2011 | volume= 30 | issue= 4 | pages= 235-42 | pmid=21511034 | doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2011.03.005 | pmc=3135176 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21511034 }} </ref>|P05=Upregulation of Egr-1 (early growth response protein 1)<ref name="pmid19628764">{{cite journal| author=Yasuoka H, Hsu E, Ruiz XD, Steinman RA, Choi AM, Feghali-Bostwick CA| title=The fibrotic phenotype induced by IGFBP-5 is regulated by MAPK activation and egr-1-dependent and -independent mechanisms. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2009 | volume= 175 | issue= 2 | pages= 605-15 | pmid=19628764 | doi=10.2353/ajpath.2009.080991 | pmc=2716960 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19628764 }} </ref>|P06=Loss of [[endothelial]] barrier function }} | {{Family tree| | P01 | | P02 | | P05 | | P04 | | | | P03 |.| | | | | | P06 | | | | | P01=[[Wnt signaling pathway|Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway]]<ref name="pmid18478089">{{cite journal| author=Königshoff M, Balsara N, Pfaff EM, Kramer M, Chrobak I, Seeger W et al.| title=Functional Wnt signaling is increased in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2008 | volume= 3 | issue= 5 | pages= e2142 | pmid=18478089 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002142 | pmc=2374879 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18478089 }} </ref><ref name="pmid21454805">{{cite journal| author=Lam AP, Flozak AS, Russell S, Wei J, Jain M, Mutlu GM et al.| title=Nuclear β-catenin is increased in systemic sclerosis pulmonary fibrosis and promotes lung fibroblast migration and proliferation. | journal=Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol | year= 2011 | volume= 45 | issue= 5 | pages= 915-22 | pmid=21454805 | doi=10.1165/rcmb.2010-0113OC | pmc=3262680 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21454805 }} </ref>|P02=PAR-2/protein kinase (PK)C-α/Raf-1/p44/42 signaling pathway<ref name="pmid23562441">{{cite journal| author=Wygrecka M, Dahal BK, Kosanovic D, Petersen F, Taborski B, von Gerlach S et al.| title=Mast cells and fibroblasts work in concert to aggravate pulmonary fibrosis: role of transmembrane SCF and the PAR-2/PKC-α/Raf-1/p44/42 signaling pathway. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2013 | volume= 182 | issue= 6 | pages= 2094-108 | pmid=23562441 | doi=10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.02.013 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23562441 }} </ref>|P03=[[IGFBP3|IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3]])|P04=[[Insulin-like growth factor binding protein|IGF-binding protein 5 (IGFBP-5)]]<ref name="pmid21511034">{{cite journal| author=Bhattacharyya S, Wu M, Fang F, Tourtellotte W, Feghali-Bostwick C, Varga J| title=Early growth response transcription factors: key mediators of fibrosis and novel targets for anti-fibrotic therapy. | journal=Matrix Biol | year= 2011 | volume= 30 | issue= 4 | pages= 235-42 | pmid=21511034 | doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2011.03.005 | pmc=3135176 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21511034 }} </ref>|P05=Upregulation of Egr-1 (early growth response protein 1)<ref name="pmid19628764">{{cite journal| author=Yasuoka H, Hsu E, Ruiz XD, Steinman RA, Choi AM, Feghali-Bostwick CA| title=The fibrotic phenotype induced by IGFBP-5 is regulated by MAPK activation and egr-1-dependent and -independent mechanisms. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2009 | volume= 175 | issue= 2 | pages= 605-15 | pmid=19628764 | doi=10.2353/ajpath.2009.080991 | pmc=2716960 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19628764 }} </ref>|P06=Loss of [[endothelial]] barrier function }} | ||
{{Family tree| |!| |!| | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | |!| |!| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| |!| |!| | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | |!| |!| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| O01 |!| | |!| | | |`|-|-|-|^|.| | | | |!| O02 | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | O01=Dysregulation of repair in [[lung tissue]] and activation of [[fibroblasts]]|O02=Regulates [[transforming growth factor-β]] ([[TGF-β]]) }} | {{Family tree| O01 |!| | |!| | | |`|-|-|-|^|.| | | | |!| O02 | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | O01=Dysregulation of repair in [[lung tissue]] and activation of [[fibroblasts]]<ref name="pmid23881674">{{cite journal| author=Sun Z, Gong X, Zhu H, Wang C, Xu X, Cui D et al.| title=Inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling promotes engraftment of mesenchymal stem cells to repair lung injury. | journal=J Cell Physiol | year= 2014 | volume= 229 | issue= 2 | pages= 213-24 | pmid=23881674 | doi=10.1002/jcp.24436 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23881674 }} </ref>|O02=Regulates [[transforming growth factor-β]] ([[TGF-β]]) }} | ||
{{Family tree| | | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | |!|,|'| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| | | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | |!|,|'| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | A02 | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | A01=|A02=Induction of [[syndecan-2|syndecan-2 (SDC2)]]<ref name="pmid22900087">{{cite journal| author=Ruiz XD, Mlakar LR, Yamaguchi Y, Su Y, Larregina AT, Pilewski JM et al.| title=Syndecan-2 is a novel target of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and is over-expressed in fibrosis. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2012 | volume= 7 | issue= 8 | pages= e43049 | pmid=22900087 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0043049 | pmc=3416749 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22900087 }} </ref>}} | {{Family tree| | | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | A02 | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | A01=|A02=Induction of [[syndecan-2|syndecan-2 (SDC2)]]<ref name="pmid22900087">{{cite journal| author=Ruiz XD, Mlakar LR, Yamaguchi Y, Su Y, Larregina AT, Pilewski JM et al.| title=Syndecan-2 is a novel target of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and is over-expressed in fibrosis. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2012 | volume= 7 | issue= 8 | pages= e43049 | pmid=22900087 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0043049 | pmc=3416749 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22900087 }} </ref>}} | ||
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{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | D01 | |!| | D02 | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | D01=Altered PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue)/Akt axis|D02=Acquire contractile stress fibres}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | D01 | |!| | D02 | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | D01=Altered PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue)/Akt axis|D02=Acquire contractile stress fibres}} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |!| | |!| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | G01 | |!| | G02 | | G03 | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | G01= Inactivates [[FOX proteins|Fox (forkhead box) O3a]]<ref name="pmid23580232">{{cite journal| author=Nho RS, Peterson M, Hergert P, Henke CA| title=FoxO3a (Forkhead Box O3a) deficiency protects Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) fibroblasts from type I polymerized collagen matrix-induced apoptosis via caveolin-1 (cav-1) and Fas. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2013 | volume= 8 | issue= 4 | pages= e61017 | pmid=23580232 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0061017 | pmc=3620276 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23580232 }} </ref>|G02=Protomyofibroblast, composed of cytoplasmic [[actins]]|G03=[[Pleural]] [[mesothelial]] cells (PMCs)}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | G01 | |!| | G02 | | G03 | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | G01= Inactivates [[FOX proteins|Fox (forkhead box) O3a]]<ref name="pmid23580232">{{cite journal| author=Nho RS, Peterson M, Hergert P, Henke CA| title=FoxO3a (Forkhead Box O3a) deficiency protects Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) fibroblasts from type I polymerized collagen matrix-induced apoptosis via caveolin-1 (cav-1) and Fas. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2013 | volume= 8 | issue= 4 | pages= e61017 | pmid=23580232 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0061017 | pmc=3620276 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23580232 }} </ref>|G02=Protomyofibroblast, composed of cytoplasmic [[actins]]|G03=[[Pleural]] [[mesothelial]] cells (PMCs)<ref name="pmid21737551">{{cite journal| author=Mubarak KK, Montes-Worboys A, Regev D, Nasreen N, Mohammed KA, Faruqi I et al.| title=Parenchymal trafficking of pleural mesothelial cells in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. | journal=Eur Respir J | year= 2012 | volume= 39 | issue= 1 | pages= 133-40 | pmid=21737551 | doi=10.1183/09031936.00141010 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21737551 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19411308">{{cite journal| author=Nasreen N, Mohammed KA, Mubarak KK, Baz MA, Akindipe OA, Fernandez-Bussy S et al.| title=Pleural mesothelial cell transformation into myofibroblasts and haptotactic migration in response to TGF-beta1 in vitro. | journal=Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol | year= 2009 | volume= 297 | issue= 1 | pages= L115-24 | pmid=19411308 | doi=10.1152/ajplung.90587.2008 | pmc=2711818 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19411308 }} </ref>}} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |!| | |!| | | |!| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | |!| | |!| | | |!| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | H01 | |!| | H02 | | H03 | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | H01= Downregulation of [[Caveolin 1|caveolin-1 (cav-1)]] and Fas expression<ref name="pmid18759267">{{cite journal| author=Del Galdo F, Sotgia F, de Almeida CJ, Jasmin JF, Musick M, Lisanti MP et al.| title=Decreased expression of caveolin 1 in patients with systemic sclerosis: crucial role in the pathogenesis of tissue fibrosis. | journal=Arthritis Rheum | year= 2008 | volume= 58 | issue= 9 | pages= 2854-65 | pmid=18759267 | doi=10.1002/art.23791 | pmc=2770094 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18759267 }} </ref>|H02=De novo expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA)|H03=TGF-β1-dependent mesothelial–mesenchymal transition}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | H01 | |!| | H02 | | H03 | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | H01= Downregulation of [[Caveolin 1|caveolin-1 (cav-1)]] and Fas expression<ref name="pmid18759267">{{cite journal| author=Del Galdo F, Sotgia F, de Almeida CJ, Jasmin JF, Musick M, Lisanti MP et al.| title=Decreased expression of caveolin 1 in patients with systemic sclerosis: crucial role in the pathogenesis of tissue fibrosis. | journal=Arthritis Rheum | year= 2008 | volume= 58 | issue= 9 | pages= 2854-65 | pmid=18759267 | doi=10.1002/art.23791 | pmc=2770094 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18759267 }} </ref>|H02=De novo expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA)|H03=TGF-β1-dependent mesothelial–mesenchymal transition}} | ||
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{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| J02 | | | J03 | |!| | | | | | | | J02=Different ranges of contractions mediated by RhoA/Rho-associated kinase|J03=Changes in intracellular calcium concentrations}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| J02 | | | J03 | |!| | | | | | | | J02=Different ranges of contractions mediated by RhoA/Rho-associated kinase|J03=Changes in intracellular calcium concentrations}} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | |`|-|v|-|'| | |!| | | | | | | | }} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | |`|-|v|-|'| | |!| | | | | | | | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | K01 | | | | | |!| |,|-|'| | | | K02 | | | |!| | | | | K03 | K01=Recruitement of fibrocytes in [[lungs]]|K02=Lock step mechanism of cyclic and contractile events<ref name="pmid20427321">{{cite journal| author=Castella LF, Buscemi L, Godbout C, Meister JJ, Hinz B| title=A new lock-step mechanism of matrix remodelling based on subcellular contractile events. | journal=J Cell Sci | year= 2010 | volume= 123 | issue= Pt 10 | pages= 1751-60 | pmid=20427321 | doi=10.1242/jcs.066795 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20427321 }} </ref>|K03=[[T helper cell|T-helper cell type 2]] on site of injury}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | K01 | | | | | |!| |,|-|'| | | | K02 | | | |!| | | | | K03 | K01=Recruitement of fibrocytes in [[lungs]]|K02=Lock step mechanism of cyclic and contractile events<ref name="pmid20427321">{{cite journal| author=Castella LF, Buscemi L, Godbout C, Meister JJ, Hinz B| title=A new lock-step mechanism of matrix remodelling based on subcellular contractile events. | journal=J Cell Sci | year= 2010 | volume= 123 | issue= Pt 10 | pages= 1751-60 | pmid=20427321 | doi=10.1242/jcs.066795 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20427321 }} </ref>|K03=[[T helper cell|T-helper cell type 2]] on site of injury<ref name="pmid15802346">{{cite journal| author=Capelli A, Di Stefano A, Gnemmi I, Donner CF| title=CCR5 expression and CC chemokine levels in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. | journal=Eur Respir J | year= 2005 | volume= 25 | issue= 4 | pages= 701-7 | pmid=15802346 | doi=10.1183/09031936.05.00082604 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15802346 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15383605">{{cite journal| author=Belperio JA, Dy M, Murray L, Burdick MD, Xue YY, Strieter RM et al.| title=The role of the Th2 CC chemokine ligand CCL17 in pulmonary fibrosis. | journal=J Immunol | year= 2004 | volume= 173 | issue= 7 | pages= 4692-8 | pmid=15383605 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15383605 }} </ref>}} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |!| |!| | | | | | |!| | | | |!| | | | | |!| | }} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |!| |!| | | | | | |!| | | | |!| | | | | |!| | }} | ||
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | L01 | | | | | | L02 | | | | | | L03 | | | |!| | | | | L04 | |L01=Upregulation of [[CXCR4|C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4)]]<br>on [[fibrocytes]] and its ligand<br>CXCL12 (stromal cell-derived factor 1)|L02=Excess extracellular matrix production|L03=Exerting traction force|L04=[[Interleukin-13]]}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | L01 | | | | | | L02 | | | | | | L03 | | | |!| | | | | L04 | |L01=Upregulation of [[CXCR4|C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4)]]<br>on [[fibrocytes]] and its ligand<br>CXCL12 (stromal cell-derived factor 1)<ref name="pmid18374622">{{cite journal| author=Andersson-Sjöland A, de Alba CG, Nihlberg K, Becerril C, Ramírez R, Pardo A et al.| title=Fibrocytes are a potential source of lung fibroblasts in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. | journal=Int J Biochem Cell Biol | year= 2008 | volume= 40 | issue= 10 | pages= 2129-40 | pmid=18374622 | doi=10.1016/j.biocel.2008.02.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18374622 }} </ref>|L02=Excess extracellular matrix production|L03=Exerting traction force|L04=[[Interleukin-13]]}} | ||
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{{Family tree| | | | | | | | M01 | | | | | | M02 | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | M03 | |M01=Migration of fibrocytes to the site of injury|M02=Tissue remodelling<ref name="pmid17525249">{{cite journal| author=Hinz B, Phan SH, Thannickal VJ, Galli A, Bochaton-Piallat ML, Gabbiani G| title=The myofibroblast: one function, multiple origins. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2007 | volume= 170 | issue= 6 | pages= 1807-16 | pmid=17525249 | doi=10.2353/ajpath.2007.070112 | pmc=1899462 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17525249 }} </ref>|M03=Alternate pathway activation of [[macrophages]]}} | {{Family tree| | | | | | | | M01 | | | | | | M02 | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | M03 | |M01=Migration of fibrocytes to the site of injury<ref name="pmid15743780">{{cite journal| author=Moore BB, Kolodsick JE, Thannickal VJ, Cooke K, Moore TA, Hogaboam C et al.| title=CCR2-mediated recruitment of fibrocytes to the alveolar space after fibrotic injury. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2005 | volume= 166 | issue= 3 | pages= 675-84 | pmid=15743780 | doi=10.1016/S0002-9440(10)62289-4 | pmc=1780139 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15743780 }} </ref>|M02=Tissue remodelling<ref name="pmid17525249">{{cite journal| author=Hinz B, Phan SH, Thannickal VJ, Galli A, Bochaton-Piallat ML, Gabbiani G| title=The myofibroblast: one function, multiple origins. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2007 | volume= 170 | issue= 6 | pages= 1807-16 | pmid=17525249 | doi=10.2353/ajpath.2007.070112 | pmc=1899462 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17525249 }} </ref>|M03=Alternate pathway activation of [[macrophages]]<ref name="pmid7995399">{{cite journal| author=Lohmann-Matthes ML, Steinmüller C, Franke-Ullmann G| title=Pulmonary macrophages. | journal=Eur Respir J | year= 1994 | volume= 7 | issue= 9 | pages= 1678-89 | pmid=7995399 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7995399 }} </ref>}} | ||
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Revision as of 17:03, 8 March 2018
For the WikiPatient page for this topic, click here
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Saarah T. Alkhairy, M.D.
Synonyms and keywords: Diffuse parenchymal lung disease; DPLD; ILD
Overview
Classification
Interstitial lung disease may be classified on the basis of lung response to tissue injury and include:[1]
- Lung response: Granulomatous
- Lung response: Alveolitis, interstitial inflammation, and fibrosis
| Interstitial lung disease | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Lung Response: Granulomatous | Lung Response: Alveolitis, Interstitial Inflammation, and Fibrosis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Known | Idiopathic (Unknown) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (organic dusts) | Inorganic dusts | Sarcoidosis | Lymphomatoid granulomatosis | Granulomatous vasculitides | Bronchocentric granulomatosis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Beryllium | Silica | Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg Strauss syndrome) | Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Known cause | Idiopathic (Unknown) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Drug-induced pulmonary toxicity | Occupational and environmental exposure | Radiation-induced lung injury | Aspiration pneumonia | Smoking-related | Residual of acute respiratory distress syndrome | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Inhaled inorganic dust | Inhaled organic dusts | Inhaled agents other than inorganic or organic dusts | Desquamative interstitial pneumonia | Respiratory bronchiolitis–associated interstitial lung disease | Pulmonary Langerhans cell granulomatosis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis | Idiopathic interstitial pneumonias | Lymphocytic infiltrative disorders (lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis associated with connective tissue disease) | Connective tissue diseases | Gastrointestinal or liver diseases | Inherited diseases | Graft-versus-host disease | Pulmonary hemorrhage syndromes | Eosinophilic pneumonias | Lymphangioleiomyomatosis | Amyloidosis | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Major idiopathic interstitial pneumonias | Rare idiopathic interstitial pneumonias | Unclassifiable idiopathic interstitial pneumonias | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis • Idiopathic nonspecific interstitial pneumonia • Respiratory bronchiolitis-interstitial lung disease • Desquamative interstitial pneumonia • Cryptogenic organising pneumonia • Acute interstitial pneumonia | • Idiopathic lymphoid interstitial pneumonia • Idiopathic pleuroparenchymal fibroelastosis | • Systemic lupus erythematosus • Rheumatoid arthritis • Ankylosing spondylitis • Systemic sclerosis • Sjögren syndrome • Polymyositis • Dermatomyositis | • Crohn disease • Primary biliary cirrhosis • Chronic active hepatitis • Ulcerative colitis | • Tuberous sclerosis • Neurofibromatosis • Niemann-Pick disease • Gaucher disease • Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome | • Bone marrow transplantation • Solid organ transplantation | • Goodpasture syndrome • Idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis • Isolated pulmonary capillaritis | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pathophysiology
Algorithm showing pathophysiology of Interstitial Lung Disease[2]
| Tissue injury in lungs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Parenchymal injury | Vascular injury | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mast cells in lungs in response to tissue injury | LPA6, LPA2, and LPA4 receptors[3] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Decreased sFRP-1 (secreted frizzled-related protein 1) in fibroblasts[4] | Secretes tryptase | Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)[5] | Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signalling[4] | Reduced expression of angiogenic factors, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)[6] | Elevation of angiostatic factors, pigment epithelium-derived factor[7] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway[8][9] | PAR-2/protein kinase (PK)C-α/Raf-1/p44/42 signaling pathway[10] | Upregulation of Egr-1 (early growth response protein 1)[11] | IGF-binding protein 5 (IGFBP-5)[12] | IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3) | Loss of endothelial barrier function | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dysregulation of repair in lung tissue and activation of fibroblasts[13] | Regulates transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Induction of syndecan-2 (SDC2)[14] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Activation,proliferation, and migration of fibroblast to the site of injury | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Fibroblasts | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Altered PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue)/Akt axis | Acquire contractile stress fibres | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Inactivates Fox (forkhead box) O3a[15] | Protomyofibroblast, composed of cytoplasmic actins | Pleural mesothelial cells (PMCs)[16][17] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Downregulation of caveolin-1 (cav-1) and Fas expression[18] | De novo expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) | TGF-β1-dependent mesothelial–mesenchymal transition | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Fibroblast resistant to apoptosis[19] | Myofibroblasts[20] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Different ranges of contractions mediated by RhoA/Rho-associated kinase | Changes in intracellular calcium concentrations | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Recruitement of fibrocytes in lungs | Lock step mechanism of cyclic and contractile events[21] | T-helper cell type 2 on site of injury[22][23] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Upregulation of C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) on fibrocytes and its ligand CXCL12 (stromal cell-derived factor 1)[24] | Excess extracellular matrix production | Exerting traction force | Interleukin-13 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Migration of fibrocytes to the site of injury[25] | Tissue remodelling[26] | Alternate pathway activation of macrophages[27] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Lung Fibrosis | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
References
- ↑ Kasper, Dennis (2015). "315: Interstitial Lung Diseases". In Talmadge, E. King, Jr. Harrison's principles of internal medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Education. ISBN 0071802150.
- ↑ Bagnato G, Harari S (2015). "Cellular interactions in the pathogenesis of interstitial lung diseases". Eur Respir Rev. 24 (135): 102–14. doi:10.1183/09059180.00003214. PMID 25726561.
- ↑ Ren Y, Guo L, Tang X, Apparsundaram S, Kitson C, Deguzman J; et al. (2013). "Comparing the differential effects of LPA on the barrier function of human pulmonary endothelial cells". Microvasc Res. 85: 59–67. doi:10.1016/j.mvr.2012.10.004. PMID 23084965.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Hsu E, Shi H, Jordan RM, Lyons-Weiler J, Pilewski JM, Feghali-Bostwick CA (2011). "Lung tissues in patients with systemic sclerosis have gene expression patterns unique to pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension". Arthritis Rheum. 63 (3): 783–94. doi:10.1002/art.30159. PMC 3139818. PMID 21360508.
- ↑ Andersson CK, Mori M, Bjermer L, Löfdahl CG, Erjefält JS (2010). "Alterations in lung mast cell populations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 181 (3): 206–17. doi:10.1164/rccm.200906-0932OC. PMID 19926870.
- ↑ Ebina M, Shimizukawa M, Shibata N, Kimura Y, Suzuki T, Endo M; et al. (2004). "Heterogeneous increase in CD34-positive alveolar capillaries in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 169 (11): 1203–8. doi:10.1164/rccm.200308-1111OC. PMID 14754760.
- ↑ Cosgrove GP, Brown KK, Schiemann WP, Serls AE, Parr JE, Geraci MW; et al. (2004). "Pigment epithelium-derived factor in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a role in aberrant angiogenesis". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 170 (3): 242–51. doi:10.1164/rccm.200308-1151OC. PMID 15117744.
- ↑ Königshoff M, Balsara N, Pfaff EM, Kramer M, Chrobak I, Seeger W; et al. (2008). "Functional Wnt signaling is increased in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". PLoS One. 3 (5): e2142. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002142. PMC 2374879. PMID 18478089.
- ↑ Lam AP, Flozak AS, Russell S, Wei J, Jain M, Mutlu GM; et al. (2011). "Nuclear β-catenin is increased in systemic sclerosis pulmonary fibrosis and promotes lung fibroblast migration and proliferation". Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 45 (5): 915–22. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2010-0113OC. PMC 3262680. PMID 21454805.
- ↑ Wygrecka M, Dahal BK, Kosanovic D, Petersen F, Taborski B, von Gerlach S; et al. (2013). "Mast cells and fibroblasts work in concert to aggravate pulmonary fibrosis: role of transmembrane SCF and the PAR-2/PKC-α/Raf-1/p44/42 signaling pathway". Am J Pathol. 182 (6): 2094–108. doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.02.013. PMID 23562441.
- ↑ Yasuoka H, Hsu E, Ruiz XD, Steinman RA, Choi AM, Feghali-Bostwick CA (2009). "The fibrotic phenotype induced by IGFBP-5 is regulated by MAPK activation and egr-1-dependent and -independent mechanisms". Am J Pathol. 175 (2): 605–15. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2009.080991. PMC 2716960. PMID 19628764.
- ↑ Bhattacharyya S, Wu M, Fang F, Tourtellotte W, Feghali-Bostwick C, Varga J (2011). "Early growth response transcription factors: key mediators of fibrosis and novel targets for anti-fibrotic therapy". Matrix Biol. 30 (4): 235–42. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2011.03.005. PMC 3135176. PMID 21511034.
- ↑ Sun Z, Gong X, Zhu H, Wang C, Xu X, Cui D; et al. (2014). "Inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling promotes engraftment of mesenchymal stem cells to repair lung injury". J Cell Physiol. 229 (2): 213–24. doi:10.1002/jcp.24436. PMID 23881674.
- ↑ Ruiz XD, Mlakar LR, Yamaguchi Y, Su Y, Larregina AT, Pilewski JM; et al. (2012). "Syndecan-2 is a novel target of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and is over-expressed in fibrosis". PLoS One. 7 (8): e43049. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043049. PMC 3416749. PMID 22900087.
- ↑ Nho RS, Peterson M, Hergert P, Henke CA (2013). "FoxO3a (Forkhead Box O3a) deficiency protects Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) fibroblasts from type I polymerized collagen matrix-induced apoptosis via caveolin-1 (cav-1) and Fas". PLoS One. 8 (4): e61017. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061017. PMC 3620276. PMID 23580232.
- ↑ Mubarak KK, Montes-Worboys A, Regev D, Nasreen N, Mohammed KA, Faruqi I; et al. (2012). "Parenchymal trafficking of pleural mesothelial cells in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". Eur Respir J. 39 (1): 133–40. doi:10.1183/09031936.00141010. PMID 21737551.
- ↑ Nasreen N, Mohammed KA, Mubarak KK, Baz MA, Akindipe OA, Fernandez-Bussy S; et al. (2009). "Pleural mesothelial cell transformation into myofibroblasts and haptotactic migration in response to TGF-beta1 in vitro". Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 297 (1): L115–24. doi:10.1152/ajplung.90587.2008. PMC 2711818. PMID 19411308.
- ↑ Del Galdo F, Sotgia F, de Almeida CJ, Jasmin JF, Musick M, Lisanti MP; et al. (2008). "Decreased expression of caveolin 1 in patients with systemic sclerosis: crucial role in the pathogenesis of tissue fibrosis". Arthritis Rheum. 58 (9): 2854–65. doi:10.1002/art.23791. PMC 2770094. PMID 18759267.
- ↑ Thannickal VJ, Horowitz JC (2006). "Evolving concepts of apoptosis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". Proc Am Thorac Soc. 3 (4): 350–6. doi:10.1513/pats.200601-001TK. PMC 2231523. PMID 16738200.
- ↑ Tomasek JJ, Gabbiani G, Hinz B, Chaponnier C, Brown RA (2002). "Myofibroblasts and mechano-regulation of connective tissue remodelling". Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 3 (5): 349–63. doi:10.1038/nrm809. PMID 11988769.
- ↑ Castella LF, Buscemi L, Godbout C, Meister JJ, Hinz B (2010). "A new lock-step mechanism of matrix remodelling based on subcellular contractile events". J Cell Sci. 123 (Pt 10): 1751–60. doi:10.1242/jcs.066795. PMID 20427321.
- ↑ Capelli A, Di Stefano A, Gnemmi I, Donner CF (2005). "CCR5 expression and CC chemokine levels in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". Eur Respir J. 25 (4): 701–7. doi:10.1183/09031936.05.00082604. PMID 15802346.
- ↑ Belperio JA, Dy M, Murray L, Burdick MD, Xue YY, Strieter RM; et al. (2004). "The role of the Th2 CC chemokine ligand CCL17 in pulmonary fibrosis". J Immunol. 173 (7): 4692–8. PMID 15383605.
- ↑ Andersson-Sjöland A, de Alba CG, Nihlberg K, Becerril C, Ramírez R, Pardo A; et al. (2008). "Fibrocytes are a potential source of lung fibroblasts in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 40 (10): 2129–40. doi:10.1016/j.biocel.2008.02.012. PMID 18374622.
- ↑ Moore BB, Kolodsick JE, Thannickal VJ, Cooke K, Moore TA, Hogaboam C; et al. (2005). "CCR2-mediated recruitment of fibrocytes to the alveolar space after fibrotic injury". Am J Pathol. 166 (3): 675–84. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)62289-4. PMC 1780139. PMID 15743780.
- ↑ Hinz B, Phan SH, Thannickal VJ, Galli A, Bochaton-Piallat ML, Gabbiani G (2007). "The myofibroblast: one function, multiple origins". Am J Pathol. 170 (6): 1807–16. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2007.070112. PMC 1899462. PMID 17525249.
- ↑ Lohmann-Matthes ML, Steinmüller C, Franke-Ullmann G (1994). "Pulmonary macrophages". Eur Respir J. 7 (9): 1678–89. PMID 7995399.