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There is on average a somewhat earlier onset for men than women, with the possible protective influence of the female hormone [[Estrogen|oestrogen]] being one hypothesis made and sociocultural influences another.
There is on average a somewhat earlier onset for men than women, with the possible protective influence of the female hormone [[Estrogen|oestrogen]] being one hypothesis made and sociocultural influences another.
=== Substance use ===
The relationship between schizophrenia and drug use is complex, meaning that a clear causal connection between drug use and schizophrenia has been difficult to tease apart. There is strong evidence that using certain drugs can trigger either the onset or relapse of schizophrenia in some people. It may also be the case, however, that people with schizophrenia use drugs to overcome negative feelings associated with both the commonly prescribed antipsychotic medication and the condition itself, where negative emotion, [[paranoia]] and [[anhedonia]] are all considered to be core features.
The rate of substance use is known to be particularly high in this group. In a recent study, 60% of people with schizophrenia were found to use substances and 37% would be diagnosable with a substance use disorder.<ref name="fn_74">Swartz MS, Wagner HR, Swanson JW, ''et al'' (2006). Substance use in persons with schizophrenia: baseline prevalence and correlates from the NIMH CATIE study. ''Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'', 194(3), 164–72. PMID 16534433</ref>
==== Amphetamines ====
As amphetamines trigger the release of dopamine and excessive dopamine function is believed to be responsible for many symptoms of schizophrenia (known as the [[dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia]]), amphetamines may worsen schizophrenia symptoms.
==== Hallucinogens ====
Schizophrenia can sometimes be triggered by heavy use of [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic]] or stimulant drugs,<ref>Mueser KT, Yarnold PR, Levinson DF, ''et al'' (1990). Prevalence of substance abuse in schizophrenia: demographic and clinical correlates. ''Schizophrenic Bulletin'', 16(1), 31–56. PMID 2333480</ref> although some claim that a predisposition towards developing schizophrenia is needed for this to occur. There is also some evidence suggesting that people suffering schizophrenia but responding to treatment can have relapse because of subsequent drug use. Some widely known cases where hallucinogens have been suspected of precipitating schizophrenia are [[Pink Floyd]] founder-member [[Syd Barrett]] and [[The Beach Boys]] producer, arranger and songwriter [[Brian Wilson]].
Drugs such as [[ketamine]], [[Phencyclidine|PCP]], and [[LSD]] have been used to mimic schizophrenia for research purposes. Using LSD and other [[psychedelics]] as a model has now fallen out of favor with the [[scientific research community]], as the differences between the drug induced states and the typical presentation of schizophrenia have become clear. The dissociatives ketamine and PCP are still considered to produce states that are remarkably similar however.
Hallucinogenic drugs were also briefly tested as possible treatments for schizophrenia by psychiatrists such as [[Humphry Osmond]] and [[Abram Hoffer]] in the 1950s. It was mainly for this experimental treatment of schizophrenia that LSD administration was legal, briefly before its use as a [[recreational drug]] led to its criminalization.
==== Cannabis ====
There is evidence that [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] use can contribute to schizophrenia. Some studies suggest that cannabis is neither a [[Causality#Necessary and sufficient causes|sufficient nor necessary]] factor in developing schizophrenia, but that cannabis may significantly increase the risk of developing schizophrenia and may be, among other things, a significant causal factor. Nevertheless, some previous research in this area has been criticised as it has often not been clear whether cannabis use is a cause or effect of schizophrenia. To address this issue, a recent review of studies from which a causal contribution to schizophrenia can be assessed has suggested that cannabis statistically doubles the risk of developing schizophrenia on the individual level, and may, assuming a causal relationship, be responsible for up to 8% of cases in the population.<ref name="fn_48">Arseneault L, Cannon M, Witton J, Murray RM (2004). Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence. ''British Journal of Psychiatry'', 184, 110-7. PMID 14754822 [http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/184/2/110 Full text available.]</ref>
An older [[longitudinal study]], published in [[1987]], suggested six-fold increase of schizophrenia risks for high consumers of cannabis (use on more than fifty occasions) in [[Sweden]].<ref>Andreasson S, Allebeck P, Engstrom A, and Rydberg U (1987). Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. ''Lancet'', 1987, Dec 26, 2(8574), 1483–6. PMID 2892048</ref>
==== Tobacco ====
People with schizophrenia tend to smoke significantly more tobacco than the general population. The rates are exceptionally high amongst institutionalized patients and homeless people. In a [[UK]] census from 1993, 74% of people with schizophrenia living in institutions were found to be smokers.<ref name="mcneill">{{cite paper | author = McNeill, Ann | title = Smoking and mental health — a review of the literature | publisher = SmokeFree London Programme | date = 2001 | url = http://www.ash.org.uk/html/policy/menlitrev.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2006-12-14 }}</ref><ref name="ocps">{{cite paper | author = Meltzer H, Gill B, Petticrew M, Hinds K. | title = OPCS Surveys of Psychiatric Morbidity Report 3: Economic Activity and Social Functioning of Adults With Psychiatric Disorders. | publisher = London, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office | date = 1995}} [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/STATBASE/Product.asp?vlnk=7993&More=Y Available for fee.]</ref> A 1999 study that covered all people with schizophrenia in [[Nithsdale]], [[Scotland]] found a 58% prevalence rate of cigarette smoking, to compare with 28% in the general population.<ref name="kelly_mccreadie">{{cite journal | last = Kelly | first = C | coauthors = McCreadie RG | title = Smoking Habits, Current Symptoms, and Premorbid Characteristics of Schizophrenic Patients in Nithsdale, Scotland | journal = [[American Journal of Psychiatry|The American Journal of Psychiatry]] | volume = 156 | pages = 1751–1757 | publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association]] | date = 1999 | url = http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/156/11/1751 | accessdate = 2006-12-14 | pmid = 10553739 }}</ref> An older study found that as much as 88% of outpatients with schizophrenia were smokers.<ref name="hughes_et_al">{{cite journal | last = Hughes | first = JR | coauthors = Hatsukami DK, Mitchell JE, Dahlgren LA | title = Prevalence of smoking among psychiatric outpatients | journal = [[American Journal of Psychiatry|The American Journal of Psychiatry]] | volume = 143 | pages = 993–997 | publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association]] | date = 1986 | url = http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/143/8/993 | accessdate = 2006-12-14 |pmid = 3487983}}</ref>
Despite the higher prevalence of tobacco smoking, people diagnosed with schizophrenia have a much lower than average chance of developing and dying from [[lung cancer]]. While the reason for this is unknown, it may be because of a genetic resistance to the cancer, a side-effect of drugs being taken, or a statistical effect of increased likelihood of dying from causes other than lung cancer.<ref name="fn_49">"''Conditions in Occupational Therapy: effect on occupational performance.''" ed. Ruth A. Hansen and Ben Atchison (Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Williams, 2000), 54&ndash;74. ISBN 0-683-30417-8</ref>
A recent study of over 50,000 [[Sweden|Swedish]] conscripts found that there was a small but [[Statistical significance|significant]] protective effect of smoking cigarettes on the risk of developing schizophrenia later in life.<ref name="fn_50">Zammit S, Allebeck P, Dalman C, Lundberg I, Hemmingsson T, Lewis G (2003). Investigating the association between cigarette smoking and schizophrenia in a cohort study. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', 160 (12), 2216&ndash;21. PMID 14638593</ref> While the authors of the study stressed that the risks of smoking far outweigh these minor benefits, this study provides further evidence for the 'self-medication' theory of smoking in schizophrenia and may give clues as to how schizophrenia might develop at the molecular level. Furthermore, many people with schizophrenia have smoked tobacco products long before they are diagnosed with the illness, and some groups advocate that the chemicals in tobacco have actually contributed to the onset of the illness and have no benefit of any kind.
It is of interest that cigarette smoking affects liver function such that the [[antipsychotic drugs]] used to treat schizophrenia are broken down in the blood stream more quickly. This means that smokers with schizophrenia need slightly higher doses of antipsychotic drugs in order for them to be effective than do their non-smoking counterparts.
The increased rate of smoking in schizophrenia may be due to a desire to self-medicate with [[nicotine]]. One possible reason is that smoking produces a short term effect to improve alertness and cognitive functioning in persons who suffer this illness.<ref name="compton_2005">{{cite web | last = Compton | first = Michael T. | title = Cigarette Smoking in Individuals with Schizophrenia | publisher = Medscape Psychiatry & Mental Health | date = [[2005-11-16]] | url = http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/516304_print | accessdate = 2007-05-17 }}</ref> It has been postulated that the mechanism of this effect is that people with schizophrenia have a disturbance of nicotinic receptor functioning which is temporarily abated by tobacco use.<ref name="compton_2005" />


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Revision as of 16:42, 9 March 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1];Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Vindhya BellamKonda, M.B.B.S [2]

Overview

Schizophrenia is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental disorder characterized by impairments in the perception or expression of reality and by significant social or occupational dysfunction.

The causes of schizophrenia have been the subject of much debate over many decades with various factors proposed and discounted. To date none has been fully elucidated, but evidence suggests that genetic vulnerability and environmental stressors act in combination to result in schizophrenia.

Studies suggest that genetics, early environment, neurobiology and psychological and social processes are important contributory factors. Current psychiatric research into the development of the disorder often focuses on the role of neurobiology, although a reliable and identifiable organic cause has not been found. In the absence of a confirmed specific pathology underlying the diagnosis, some question the legitimacy of schizophrenia's status as a disease. Furthermore, some propose that the perceptions and feelings involved are meaningful and do not necessarily involve impairment. Although no common cause of schizophrenia has been identified in all individuals diagnosed with the condition, currently most researchers and clinicians believe it results from a combination of both brain vulnerabilities (either inherited or acquired) and stressful life-events. This widely-adopted approach is known as the 'stress-vulnerability' model, and much scientific debate now focuses on how much each of these factors contributes to the development and maintenance of schizophrenia.

It is also thought that processes in early neurodevelopment are important, particularly prenatal processes. In adult life, importance has been placed upon the function (or malfunction) of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway in the brain. This theory, known as the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia largely resulted from the accidental finding that a drug group which blocks dopamine function, known as the phenothiazines, reduced psychotic symptoms. However, this theory is now thought to be overly simplistic as a complete explanation. These drugs have now been developed further and antipsychotic medication is commonly used as a first-line treatment. Although effective in many cases, these medications are not well tolerated by some patients due to significant side-effects. The positive symptoms are more responsive to medications; negative symptoms being less so.

Differences in brain structure have been found between people with schizophrenia and those without. However, these tend only to be reliable on the group level and, due to the significant variability between individuals, may not be reliably present in any particular individual. Significant brain atrophy and enlarged ventricles are the most conspicuous of such differences.

Causes

While the reliability of the schizophrenia diagnosis introduces difficulties in measuring the relative effect of genes and environment (for example, symptoms overlap to some extent with severe bipolar disorder or major depression), evidence suggests that genetic vulnerability and environmental stressors can act in combination to result in diagnosis of schizophrenia.[1]

The extent to which these factors influence the likelihood of being diagnosed with schizophrenia is debated widely, and currently, controversial. Schizophrenia is likely to be a diagnosis of complex inheritance. Thus, it is likely that several genes interact to generate risk for schizophrenia or for the separate components that can co-occur to lead to a diagnosis.[2] This, combined with disagreements over which research methods are best, or how data from genetic research should be interpreted, has led to differing estimates over genetic contribution.

It is thought that causal factors can initially come together in early neurodevelopment, including during pregnancy, to increase the risk of later developing schizophrenia. One curious finding is that people diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring[3] (at least in the northern hemisphere). However, the effect is not large. Some researchers postulate that the correlation is due to viral infections during the third trimester (4–6 months) of pregnancy. There is now significant evidence that prenatal exposure to infections increases the risk for developing schizophrenia later in life, providing additional evidence for a link between in utero developmental pathology and risk of developing the condition.[4]


Schizophrenia is most commonly first diagnosed during late adolescence or early adulthood suggesting it is often the end process of childhood and adolescent development. Studies have indicated that genetic dispositions can interact with early environment to increase the risk of developing schizophrenia, including through global neurobehavioral deficits,[5] a poorer family environment and disruptive school behaviour,[6] poor peer engagement, immaturity or unpopularity[7] or poorer social competence and increasing schizophrenic symptomology emerging during adolescence[8] These developmental problems have also been linked to socioeconomic disadvantage or early experiences of traumatic events.[9]

There is on average a somewhat earlier onset for men than women, with the possible protective influence of the female hormone oestrogen being one hypothesis made and sociocultural influences another.

Other

Calcium channel abnormalities are currently being explored as a factor in schizophrenia. Related to this, three small studies have found some improvements on some measures, in schizophrenia with tardive dyskinesia, with the calcium channel blocking agent nilvadipine added to an existing antipsychotic regimen[10]

Currently, there is growing evidence of the crucial role of autoimmunity in the etiology and pathogenesis of schizophrenia. This can be seen as a study of the statistical correlation schizophrenia with other autoimmune diseases[11] and the recent work on the direct detailed study immune status of patients with schizophrenia.[12][13]

References

  1. ↑ Harrison PJ, Owen MJ. (2003). Genes for schizophrenia? Recent findings and their pathophysiological implications. Lancet, 361(9355), 417–9. PMID 12573388
  2. ↑ Owen MJ, Craddock N, O'Donovan MC. (2005). Schizophrenia: genes at last? Trends in Genetics, 21(9), 518–25. PMID 16009449
  3. ↑ Davies G, Welham J, Chant D, Torrey EF, McGrath J. (2003). A systematic review and meta-analysis of Northern Hemisphere season of birth studies in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29 (3), 587–93. PMID 14609251
  4. ↑ Brown, A.S. (2006). Prenatal infection as a risk factor for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32 (2), 200–2. PMID 16469941
  5. ↑ Hans SL, Marcus J, Nuechterlein KH, et al (1999). Neurobehavioral deficits at adolescence in children at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 56(8):741–8. PMID 10435609
  6. ↑ Carter JW, Schulsinger F, Parnas J, Cannon T, Mednick SA. (2002). A multivariate prediction model of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 28(4):649–82. PMID 12795497
  7. ↑ Hans SL, Auerbach JG, Asarnow JR, Styr B, Marcus J. (2000). Social adjustment of adolescents at risk for schizophrenia: the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 39(11):1406–14. PMID 11068896
  8. ↑ Dworkin RH, Bernstein G, Kaplansky LM, et al (1991). Social competence and positive and negative symptoms: a longitudinal study of children and adolescents at risk for schizophrenia and affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry. Sep;148(9):1182–8. PMID 1882996
  9. ↑ Read J, Perry BD, Moskowitz A, Connolly J (2001). The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: a traumagenic neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry, 64, 319-45. PMID 11822210Full text) (PDF), Retrieved on 2007-05-16
  10. ↑ Yamada K, Ashikari I, Onishi K, Kanba S, Yagi G, Asai M. (1995). Effectiveness of nilvadipine in two cases of chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. Aug;49(4):237–8. PMID 9179944
  11. ↑ Eaton WW, Byrne M, Ewald H, Mors O, Chen CY, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB (2006). Association of Schizophrenia and Autoimmune Diseases: Linkage of Danish National Registers. American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 521–528. PMID 16513876
  12. ↑ Jones AL, Mowry BJ, Pender MP, Greer JM. (2005). Immune dysregulation and self-reactivity in schizophrenia: do some cases of schizophrenia have an autoimmune basis? Immunol Cell Biol, 83 (1), 9–17. PMID 15661036
  13. ↑ Strous RD, Shoenfeld Y (2006). Schizophrenia, autoimmunity and immune system dysregulation: a comprehensive model updated and revisited. Journal of Autoimmunity 2006 Sep;27(2):71–80. PMID 16997531

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