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==Overview==
==Overview==
Newborns with cyanosis require adequate tissue perfusion and [[oxygenation]]. Initiating [[oxygen therapy]] with 40-60% O2 is sufficient. Exposures to [[hyperoxia]] increases [[oxidative stress]] and damage lung parenchyma and vascular function. [[Inotropic agent|Inotropic agents]] such as [[dopamine]] or [[dobutamine]] may be necessary to correct '''[[hypotension]]'''. In case of a minimal response to [[oxygen]], cardiac disease should be suspected and need for [[Alprostadil|PGE1]] should be discussed. Complications of prostaglandin E1 infusion include [[hypotension]], [[tachycardia]], and [[apnea]]. In cases of respiratory distress syndrome, exogenous [[surfactant]] replacement therapy is effective in reducing [[RDS]] [[mortality]] and [[morbidity]] in [[preterm]] infants. In cases of Esinmenger syndrome, if surgical intervention is not available, treatment is mostly [[palliative]]. [[Anticoagulants]], pulmonary vasodilators such as [[bosentan]], [[prostacyclin]] may improve pulmonary artery pressure and may improve length of life. Antibiotic [[prophylaxis]] prevents [[endocarditis]]. For aortic stenosis, [[beta blockers]] are the treatment of choice. Caution should be taken as too much control of [[hypertension]] in upper limb can cause [[hypotension]] in [[lower limbs]]. Surgical treatment of the lesion should not be delayed for the correction of [[hypertension]]. 
== Initial management of neonantal cyanosis ==
== Initial management of neonantal cyanosis ==
* Newborns with cyanosis require adequate tissue perfusion and oxygenation.  
* Newborns with cyanosis require adequate tissue perfusion and [[oxygenation]].  
* A '''hyperoxia test''' is a test that is performed to determine whether the patient's cyanosis is due to lung disease or a problem with blood circulation. It is performed by measuring the arterial blood gases of the patient while they breathe room air, then re-measuring the blood gases after the patient has breathed 100% oxygen for 10 minutes.  
* A '''hyperoxia test''' is a test that is performed to determine whether the patient's cyanosis is due to lung disease or a problem with blood circulation. It is performed by measuring the [[arterial blood gases]] of the patient while they breathe room air, then re-measuring the blood gases after the patient has breathed 100% oxygen for 10 minutes.  
* An infant who fails the hyperoxia test and does not have persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn or a chest radiograph consistent with lung disease is likely to have a cyanotic CHD.   
* An infant who fails the hyperoxia test and does not have persistent [[pulmonary hypertension]] of the newborn is likely to have a cyanotic [[congenital heart disease]] (CHD).   
* Monitoring of oxygen level and tissue perfusion is necessary.  
* Monitoring of oxygen level and tissue perfusion is necessary.  
* An adequate airway should be established immediately, mechanical ventilation may be needed in case of failed spontaneous respiration.   
* An adequate airway should be established immediately, [[mechanical ventilation]] may be needed in case of failed spontaneous respiration.   
* Initiating oxygen therapy with 40–60% O2 is sufficient. Exposures to hyperoxia increases oxidative stress and damage lung parenchymal and vascular function.  
* Initiating [[oxygen therapy]] with 40-60% O2 is sufficient. Exposures to [[hyperoxia]] increases [[oxidative stress]] and damage lung parenchyma and vascular function.  
* Placement of secure intravenous and intraarterial catheters is most easily accomplished via the umbilical vessels.  
* Placement of secure intravenous and [[Arterial catheter|intraarterial catheters]] is most easily accomplished via the [[umbilical vessels]].  
* Inotropic agents such as dopamine or dobutamine may be necessary to correct '''hypotension'''.  
* [[Inotropic agent|Inotropic agents]] such as [[dopamine]] or [[dobutamine]] may be necessary to correct '''[[hypotension]]'''.  
* An isovolumetric partial exchange transfusion should be performed with saline to reduce the hematocrit in cases of severe '''polycythemia'''.  
* An isovolumetric partial exchange transfusion should be performed with [[Saline (medicine)|saline]] to reduce the [[hematocrit]] in cases of severe '''[[polycythemia]]'''.  
* Maintenance a '''blood glucose''' > 55 mg/dL should be considered.  
* Maintenance a '''[[blood glucose]]''' > 55 mg/dL should be considered.  
* '''Acidosis''' should be corrected with infusions of sodium bicarbonate.  
* '''[[Acidosis]]''' should be corrected with infusions of [[sodium bicarbonate]].  
* '''Hypocalcemia''' should be corrected based on the ionized calcium.  
* '''[[Hypocalcemia]]''' should be corrected based on the ionized [[calcium]].  
* Broad spectrum antibiotics should be initiated (ampicillin and gentamicin).  
* Broad spectrum antibiotics should be initiated (ampicillin and gentamicin).  


=== Prostaglandins ===
=== Prostaglandins ===
* In case of a minimal response to oxygen, cardiac disease should be suspected and need for PGE1 should be discussed.  
* In case of a minimal response to [[oxygen]], cardiac disease should be suspected and need for [[Alprostadil|PGE1]] should be discussed.  
* Closure of the ductus arteriosus can precipitate rapid clinical deterioration with significant life-threatening changes. It may increase pulmonary blood flow and decrease systemic blood flow.  
* Closure of the [[ductus arteriosus]] can precipitate rapid clinical deterioration with significant life-threatening changes. It may increase pulmonary blood flow and decrease systemic blood flow.  
* Interventions are initiated to maintain patency of the ductus arteriosus for ductal-dependent lesions.  
* Interventions are initiated to maintain patency of the [[ductus arteriosus]] for ductal-dependent lesions.  
* The initial dose is dependent on the clinical setting, as the risk of apnea.  
* The initial dose is dependent on the clinical setting, as the risk of [[apnea]].  
* If the ductus is known to be large in a patient with duct-dependent physiology, the initial dose is 0.01 mcg/kg per minute.   
* If the ductus is known to be large in a patient with duct-dependent physiology, the initial dose is 0.01 mcg/kg per minute.   
* If the ductus is restrictive or the status of the ductus is unknown, the initial dose is 0.05 mcg/kgper minute.   
* If the ductus is restrictive or the status of the ductus is unknown, the initial dose is 0.05 mcg/kgper minute.   
* The dose of prostaglandin can be increased as needed to a maximum dose of 0.1 mcg/kg per minute.  
* The dose of prostaglandin can be increased as needed to a maximum dose of 0.1 mcg/kg per minute.  
* Complications of prostaglandin E1 infusion include hypotension, tachycardia, and apnea.  
* Complications of prostaglandin E1 infusion include [[hypotension]], [[tachycardia]], and [[apnea]].  


== Respiratory distress syndrome ==
== Respiratory distress syndrome ==


=== Surfactant therapy ===
=== Surfactant therapy ===
* Exogenous surfactant replacement therapy is effective in reducing RDS mortality and morbidity in preterm infants [27-30].  
* Exogenous [[surfactant]] replacement therapy is effective in reducing [[RDS]] [[mortality]] and [[morbidity]] in [[preterm]] infants.  


==== Types of surfactant ====
* It may be natural or synthetic surfactants.  
* It may be natural or synthetic surfactants.  
* Natural surfactants have been shown to be more efficient with lower inspired oxygen concentration and ventilator pressures, decreased mortality, and lower rate of RDS complications in preterm infants. [3,33,34]
* Natural surfactants have been shown to be more efficient with lower inspired oxygen concentration and ventilator pressures, decreased mortality, and lower rate of RDS complications in preterm infants.  
 
* All patients with RDS, and intubate and administer surfactant to those with persistent severe [[Respiratory failure|respiratory distress]] (defined as requiring a fraction of inspired oxygen [[[FiO2]]] of 0.40 or higher to maintain [[oxygen saturation]] above 90 percent or who are [[Apnea|apneic]].
* Poractant alfa: Porcine lung minced extract
* If the infant maintains adequate respiratory efforts and has an [[FiO2]] requirement less than 0.30, no additional doses of surfactant are needed.
* Calfactant: Bovine lung lavage extract
* [[Endotracheal intubation]] has been the standard technique of surfactant administration.
* Beractant: Bovine lung minced extract
 
===== Indications =====
All patients with RDS, and intubate and administer surfactant to those with persistent severe respiratory distress (defined as requiring a fraction of inspired oxygen [FiO2] of 0.40 or higher to maintain oxygen saturation above 90 percent) or who are apneic (algorithm 1) [1-3].
 
===== Response to initial dose =====
Additional doses of surfactant therapy are administered if the patient has a persistent requirement of an FiO2 >0.30. Subsequent surfactant administration may decrease mortality and morbidity in infants less than 30 weeks gestation with RDS [27,39]. (See 'Management approach' below and "Mechanical ventilation in neonates", section on 'Indications for ventilation'.)
 
If the infant maintains adequate respiratory efforts and has an FiO2 requirement less than 0.30, no additional doses of surfactant are needed and the patient can be extubated to nCPAP [27,39].
 
===== Timing =====
If surfactant therapy is used, it is most effective when given within the first 30 to 60 minutes of life following placement of a pulse oximeter and clinical confirmation of correct endotracheal tube placement. However, the potential benefits of timely administration of surfactant must be balanced with adequate time for an initial trial of nCPAP [27,40,41].
 
===== Endotracheal administration =====
Endotracheal intubation has been the standard technique of surfactant administration. However, surfactant administration may be complicated by transient airway obstruction [3,42] or inadvertent instillation into only the right main stem bronchus if the endotracheal tube is advanced too far in the airway. During administration, oxygen saturation needs to be monitored, as oxygen desaturation may occur. Other complications associated with intubation and mechanical ventilation include pulmonary injury due to volutrauma and barotrauma associated with intermittent positive pressure ventilation, pulmonary air leak, and airway injury due to intubation. (See 'Endotracheal tube complications' below.)


== Ebstein's anomaly ==
== Ebstein's anomaly ==
* Control of the heart rhythm with antiarrhythmic drugs: Ebstein's anomaly may present with an [[AV nodal reentrant tachycardia]] with associated [[pre-excitation]]. Among these patients, the preferred pharmacological treatment agent is [[procainamide]]. Since AV-blockade may promote conduction over the [[accessory pathway]], drugs such as [[beta blockers]], [[Calcium channel blocker|calcium channel blockers]] and [[digoxin]] are contraindicated. If there is [[atrial fibrillation]] with pre-excitation, treatment options include [[procainamide]], [[flecainide]], [[propafenone]], [[dofetilide]] and [[ibutilide]] since these medications slow conduction in the [[accessory pathway]]<nowiki/>causing the tachycardia and should be administered before considering electrical [[cardioversion]]. Intravenous [[amiodarone]] may also convert atrial fibrillation and/or slow the ventricular response.
* Control of the heart rhythm with antiarrhythmic drugs: Ebstein's anomaly may present with an [[AV nodal reentrant tachycardia]] with associated [[pre-excitation]].  
* Inotropic agents and [[diuretics]] for [[heart failure]].
* Among these patients, the preferred pharmacological treatment agent is [[procainamide]].
* Anticoagulation in patients with [[atrial fibrillation]] and [[paradoxical embolization]] Tricuspid valve repair is indicated in patients in which there is symptoms or deteriorating exercise capacity, [[cyanosis]] (oxygen saturation less than 90%), [[paradoxical embolism]], progressive [[cardiomegaly]] on chest x-ray or progressive right ventricular dilation or reduction of right ventricular systolic function. When possible, repair is favored over replacement. [[Warfarin]] is recommended for patients with Ebstein’s anomaly with a history of paradoxical embolus or [[atrial fibrillation]].
* Since AV-blockade may promote conduction over the [[accessory pathway]], drugs such as [[beta blockers]], [[Calcium channel blocker|calcium channel blockers]] and [[digoxin]] are contraindicated. If there is [[atrial fibrillation]] with pre-excitation, treatment options include [[procainamide]], [[flecainide]], [[propafenone]], [[dofetilide]] and [[ibutilide]] since these medications slow conduction in the [[accessory pathway]] <nowiki/>causing the tachycardia and should be administered before considering electrical [[cardioversion]]. Intravenous [[amiodarone]] may also convert [[atrial fibrillation]] and slow the ventricular response.
* [[Inotrope|Inotropic]] agents and [[diuretics]] for [[heart failure]].
* [[Anticoagulation]] in patients with [[atrial fibrillation]] and [[paradoxical embolization]] Tricuspid valve repair is indicated in patients in which there is symptoms or deteriorating exercise capacity, [[cyanosis]] (oxygen saturation less than 90%), [[paradoxical embolism]], progressive [[cardiomegaly]] on chest x-ray or progressive [[right ventricular dilation]] or reduction of right ventricular systolic function.  
* Repair is favored over replacement. [[Warfarin]] is recommended for patients with Ebstein’s anomaly with a history of paradoxical embolus or [[atrial fibrillation]].


== Coarctation of aorta ==
== Coarctation of aorta ==


==== Preoperative ====
==== Preoperative ====
* Beta blockers are the treatment of choice.
* [[Beta blockers]] are the treatment of choice.
* Caution should be taken as too much control of hypertension in upper limb can cause hypotension in lower limbs.
* Caution should be taken as too much control of [[hypertension]] in upper limb can cause hypotension in [[lower limbs]].
* Surgical treatment of the lesion should not be delayed for the correction of hypertension. 
* Surgical treatment of the lesion should not be delayed for the correction of [[hypertension]]. 


==== Postoperative ====
==== Postoperative ====
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** Anticoagulants
** Anticoagulants
** Pulmonary vasodilators such as [[bosentan]]
** Pulmonary vasodilators such as [[bosentan]]
** PGE 5 inhibitor
** [[Prostacyclin]] may improve pulmonary artery pressure and may improve length of life
** Prostacyclin may improve pulmonary artery pressure and may improve length of life
** Antibiotic [[prophylaxis]] to prevent [[endocarditis]]
** Antibiotic [[prophylaxis]] to prevent [[endocarditis]]
** [[Bloodletting|Phlebotomy]] to treat [[polycythemia]]
** [[Bloodletting|Phlebotomy]] to treat [[polycythemia]]
Line 87: Line 75:


== Methemoglobinemia ==
== Methemoglobinemia ==
Methemoglobinemia is treated with supplemental oxygen and [[methylene blue]] 1% solution (10mg/ml) 1-2mg/kg administered intravenously slowly over five minutes followed by IV flush with normal saline. Methylene blue restores the iron in hemoglobin to its normal ([[reduced]]) oxygen-carrying state. This is achieved through the [[Enzyme induction|enzyme inducing]] effect of methylene blue on levels of diaphorase II (NADPH methemoglobin reductase). Diaphorase II normally contributes only a small percentage of the red blood cells reducing capacity but is pharmacologically activated by exogenous cofactors, such as methylene blue, to 5 times its normal level of activity. Genetically induced chronic low-level methemoglobinemia may be treated with oral methylene blue daily.
* [[Methemoglobinemia]] is treated with supplemental oxygen and [[methylene blue]] 1% solution (10mg/ml) 1-2mg/kg administered intravenously slowly over five minutes followed by IV flush with normal saline.  
* [[Methylene blue]] restores the iron in [[hemoglobin]] to its normal ([[reduced]]) oxygen-carrying state. This is achieved through the [[Enzyme induction|enzyme inducing]] effect of [[methylene blue]] on levels of diaphorase II ([[NADPH]] [[methemoglobin reductase]]).  
* Diaphorase II normally contributes only a small percentage of the red blood cells reducing capacity but is pharmacologically activated by exogenous cofactors, such as [[methylene blue]], to 5 times its normal level of activity.  


== Peripheral cyanosis treatment ==
== Peripheral cyanosis treatment ==


=== Raynaud's phenomenon ===
=== Raynaud's phenomenon ===
* Drug treatment is normally with a [[calcium channel blocker]], frequently [[nifedipine]] to prevent arterioconstriction. It has the usual side effects of headache, flushing, and ankle [[edema]], and patients often stop treatment, preferring the symptoms of Raynaud's to the symptoms of the drug.
* Drug treatment is normally with a [[calcium channel blocker]], frequently [[nifedipine]] to prevent arterioconstriction.  
* The extract of the [[Ginkgo biloba]] leaves (Egb 761, 80mg) reduces symptoms in two weeks.
* It has the usual side effects of [[headache]], flushing, and ankle [[edema]], and patients often stop treatment, preferring the symptoms of [[Raynaud's disease|Raynaud's]] to the symptoms of the drug.
* The extract of the [[Ginkgo biloba]] leaves reduces symptoms in two weeks.
* There is some evidence that [[Angiotensin II receptor antagonist|Angiotensin II receptor antagonists]] (often [[Losartan]]) reduce frequency and severity of attacks.
* There is some evidence that [[Angiotensin II receptor antagonist|Angiotensin II receptor antagonists]] (often [[Losartan]]) reduce frequency and severity of attacks.
* In intractable cases, [[sympathectomy]] and infusions of [[Prostaglandin|prostaglandins]], e.g. [[prostacyclin]], may be tried, with [[amputation]] in exceptionally severe cases.
* In intractable cases, [[sympathectomy]] and infusions of [[Prostaglandin|prostaglandins]], e.g. [[prostacyclin]], may be tried, with [[amputation]] in exceptionally severe cases.
* Alpha-1 adrenergic blockers such as prazosin can be used to control Raynaud's vasospasms under supervision of a health care provider.
* Alpha-1 adrenergic blockers such as [[prazosin]] can be used to control Raynaud's [[Vasospasm|vasospasms]] under supervision of a health care provider.
* In a study published in the November 8, 2005 issue of ''Circulation'', [[sildenafil]] (Viagra) improved both microcirculation and symptoms in patients with secondary Raynaud's phenomenon resistant to vasodilatory therapy. The authors, led by Dr Roland Fries (Gotthard-Schettler-Klinik, Bad Schönborn, Germany), report: "In the present study, capillary blood flow was severely impaired and sometimes hardly detectable in patients with Raynaud's phenomenon. Sildenafil led to a more than 400% increase of flow velocity."
* Two separate gels combined on the fingertip (somewhat like two-part [[epoxy]], they cannot be combined before use because they will react) increased blood flow in the fingertips by about three times. One gel contained 5% sodium nitrite and the other contained 5% ascorbic acid. The milliliter of combined gel covered an area of ~3 cm². The gel was wiped off after a few seconds. Tucker, A.T. et al., ''The Lancet'', Vol. 354, November 13, 1999, pp..


=== Peripheral vascular disease ===
=== Peripheral vascular disease ===
Line 108: Line 97:


* If the limb is not immediately threatened:
* If the limb is not immediately threatened:
** Continue treatment with thrombolytic therapy for 14 days.
** Continue treatment with [[thrombolytic]] therapy for 14 days.
* If the limb ischemia is critical:
* If the limb ischemia is critical:
** Consider percutaneous transluminal angioplasty
** Consider percutaneous transluminal angioplasty
** Consider surgery: thromboembolectomy, bypass grafting
** Consider surgery: thromboembolectomy, bypass grafting
* Send sample for pathologic examination ([[myxoma]] may be present)
* Send sample for pathologic examination ([[myxoma]] may be present)
===== <u>Exercise '''r'''ehabilitation</u> =====
* A regular walking program four times a week for six month results in an average of 6.5 minutes improvement in the walking time.
* It opens up collateral circulation.
* It reduces cardiovascular mortality.
* It improves quality of life.


===== <u>Cilostazol</u> =====
===== <u>Cilostazol</u> =====
* Cilostazol is a phosphodiesterase III inhibitor.
* [[Cilostazol]] is a [[Phosphodiesterase inhibitors|phosphodiesterase III inhibitor]].
* It is FDA approved.
* [[Cilostazol]] is not administered to all PAD cases but rather to selected cases where regular walking program has failed to improve the walking time and capacity.
* Cilostazol is not administered to all PAD cases but rather to selected cases where regular walking program has failed to improve the walking time and capacity.
* It is contraindicated in [[congestive heart failure]].
* It is contraindicated in [[congestive heart failure]].
* Side effects:
* Side effects:
Line 138: Line 120:
* Laser
* Laser
* Cutting balloons
* Cutting balloons
* Thermal angioplasty
* Thermal [[angioplasty]]
* Fibrinolysis/Fibrinectomy


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 12:33, 14 March 2018


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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:

Overview

Newborns with cyanosis require adequate tissue perfusion and oxygenation. Initiating oxygen therapy with 40-60% O2 is sufficient. Exposures to hyperoxia increases oxidative stress and damage lung parenchyma and vascular function. Inotropic agents such as dopamine or dobutamine may be necessary to correct hypotension. In case of a minimal response to oxygen, cardiac disease should be suspected and need for PGE1 should be discussed. Complications of prostaglandin E1 infusion include hypotension, tachycardia, and apnea. In cases of respiratory distress syndrome, exogenous surfactant replacement therapy is effective in reducing RDS mortality and morbidity in preterm infants. In cases of Esinmenger syndrome, if surgical intervention is not available, treatment is mostly palliative. Anticoagulants, pulmonary vasodilators such as bosentan, prostacyclin may improve pulmonary artery pressure and may improve length of life. Antibiotic prophylaxis prevents endocarditis. For aortic stenosis, beta blockers are the treatment of choice. Caution should be taken as too much control of hypertension in upper limb can cause hypotension in lower limbs. Surgical treatment of the lesion should not be delayed for the correction of hypertension. 

Initial management of neonantal cyanosis

  • Newborns with cyanosis require adequate tissue perfusion and oxygenation.
  • A hyperoxia test is a test that is performed to determine whether the patient's cyanosis is due to lung disease or a problem with blood circulation. It is performed by measuring the arterial blood gases of the patient while they breathe room air, then re-measuring the blood gases after the patient has breathed 100% oxygen for 10 minutes.
  • An infant who fails the hyperoxia test and does not have persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn is likely to have a cyanotic congenital heart disease (CHD).
  • Monitoring of oxygen level and tissue perfusion is necessary.
  • An adequate airway should be established immediately, mechanical ventilation may be needed in case of failed spontaneous respiration.
  • Initiating oxygen therapy with 40-60% O2 is sufficient. Exposures to hyperoxia increases oxidative stress and damage lung parenchyma and vascular function.
  • Placement of secure intravenous and intraarterial catheters is most easily accomplished via the umbilical vessels.
  • Inotropic agents such as dopamine or dobutamine may be necessary to correct hypotension.
  • An isovolumetric partial exchange transfusion should be performed with saline to reduce the hematocrit in cases of severe polycythemia.
  • Maintenance a blood glucose > 55 mg/dL should be considered.
  • Acidosis should be corrected with infusions of sodium bicarbonate.
  • Hypocalcemia should be corrected based on the ionized calcium.
  • Broad spectrum antibiotics should be initiated (ampicillin and gentamicin).

Prostaglandins

  • In case of a minimal response to oxygen, cardiac disease should be suspected and need for PGE1 should be discussed.
  • Closure of the ductus arteriosus can precipitate rapid clinical deterioration with significant life-threatening changes. It may increase pulmonary blood flow and decrease systemic blood flow.
  • Interventions are initiated to maintain patency of the ductus arteriosus for ductal-dependent lesions.
  • The initial dose is dependent on the clinical setting, as the risk of apnea.
  • If the ductus is known to be large in a patient with duct-dependent physiology, the initial dose is 0.01 mcg/kg per minute.
  • If the ductus is restrictive or the status of the ductus is unknown, the initial dose is 0.05 mcg/kgper minute.
  • The dose of prostaglandin can be increased as needed to a maximum dose of 0.1 mcg/kg per minute.
  • Complications of prostaglandin E1 infusion include hypotension, tachycardia, and apnea.

Respiratory distress syndrome

Surfactant therapy

  • It may be natural or synthetic surfactants.
  • Natural surfactants have been shown to be more efficient with lower inspired oxygen concentration and ventilator pressures, decreased mortality, and lower rate of RDS complications in preterm infants.
  • All patients with RDS, and intubate and administer surfactant to those with persistent severe respiratory distress (defined as requiring a fraction of inspired oxygen [[[FiO2]]] of 0.40 or higher to maintain oxygen saturation above 90 percent or who are apneic.
  • If the infant maintains adequate respiratory efforts and has an FiO2 requirement less than 0.30, no additional doses of surfactant are needed.
  • Endotracheal intubation has been the standard technique of surfactant administration.

Ebstein's anomaly

Coarctation of aorta

Preoperative

  • Beta blockers are the treatment of choice.
  • Caution should be taken as too much control of hypertension in upper limb can cause hypotension in lower limbs.
  • Surgical treatment of the lesion should not be delayed for the correction of hypertension. 

Postoperative

Eisenmenger syndrome

  • If surgical intervention is not available, treatment is mostly palliative

Methemoglobinemia

Peripheral cyanosis treatment

Raynaud's phenomenon

Peripheral vascular disease

  • Urgent measures should be taken to ensure blood flow and protect the limb:
    • ICU admission
    • Administration of heparin for anticoagulation
    • Electrolytes, acid- base and renal status monitoring
    • Limb status monitoring and frequent assessment of the need for fasciotomy.
  • If the limb is not immediately threatened:
  • If the limb ischemia is critical:
    • Consider percutaneous transluminal angioplasty
    • Consider surgery: thromboembolectomy, bypass grafting
  • Send sample for pathologic examination (myxoma may be present)
Cilostazol

Endovascular Revascularization Modalities

References

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