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! rowspan="23" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Prerenal
! rowspan="23" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Prerenal
|[[Alcohol poisoning|'''Alcohol poisoning''']]<ref name="pmid15589492">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pletcher MJ, Maselli J, Gonzales R |title=Uncomplicated alcohol intoxication in the emergency department: an analysis of the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=117 |issue=11 |pages=863–7 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15589492 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.07.042 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2927129">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cherpitel CJ |title=Breath analysis and self-reports as measures of alcohol-related emergency room admissions |journal=J. Stud. Alcohol |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=155–61 |date=March 1989 |pmid=2927129 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12510444">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yost DA |title=Acute care for alcohol intoxication. Be prepared to consider clinical dilemmas |journal=Postgrad Med |volume=112 |issue=6 |pages=14–6, 21–2, 25–6 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12510444 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10452451">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boba A |title=Management of acute alcoholic intoxication |journal=Am J Emerg Med |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=431 |date=July 1999 |pmid=10452451 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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|[[Myocarditis]]<ref name="pmid3974674">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dec GW, Palacios IF, Fallon JT, Aretz HT, Mills J, Lee DC, Johnson RA |title=Active myocarditis in the spectrum of acute dilated cardiomyopathies. Clinical features, histologic correlates, and clinical outcome |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=312 |issue=14 |pages=885–90 |date=April 1985 |pmid=3974674 |doi=10.1056/NEJM198504043121404 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2660415">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Connell JB, Mason JW |title=Diagnosing and treating active myocarditis |journal=West. J. Med. |volume=150 |issue=4 |pages=431–5 |date=April 1989 |pmid=2660415 |pmc=1026578 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8198397">{{cite journal |vauthors=Olinde KD, O'Connell JB |title=Inflammatory heart disease: pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of myocarditis |journal=Annu. Rev. Med. |volume=45 |issue= |pages=481–90 |date=1994 |pmid=8198397 |doi=10.1146/annurev.med.45.1.481 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16449736">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baughman KL |title=Diagnosis of myocarditis: death of Dallas criteria |journal=Circulation |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=593–5 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16449736 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.589663 |url=}}</ref>
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* [[Leukocytosis]] may be with [[eosinophilia]]
* Elevated [[ESR]] and [[CRP]]
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* Screening for rheumatic origin of disease
* [[Cardiac enzymes]] to rule out infraction
* Serum viral antibodies to rule out [[viral myocarditis]], including:
** Coxsackie virus group B
** Human immunodeficiency virus ([[HIV]]),
** [[Cytomegalovirus]]
** [[Ebstein-Barr virus]]
** [[Hepatitis]] virus
** [[Influenza]] virus
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* Gadolinium-enhanced [[magnetic resonance imaging]] can detect inflammatory [[edema]]
* Delayed-enhanced MRI has also been to assess the degree of scarring
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* Endomyocardial biopsy is the gold standard for the diagnosis of [[myocarditis]]
* Echocardiography is useful for the following:
** Exclusion of [[amyloidosis]], congenital and/or valvular diseases
** Assessment of cardiac dysfunction
** Detection of inflammatory origin, wall motion abnormalities, wall thickening, and [[pericardial effusion]]
** Distinction between fulminant and acute [[myocarditis]]
* Scintigraphy is useful for detecting myocardial inflammation
* [[ECG]] is non-specific but may detect the following:
**Heart block
** Ventricular [[arrhythmia]]s
** Injury patterns, including those of myocardial [[ischemia]] and [[pericarditis]]
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|[[Peritonitis]]<ref name="pmid9798013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Such J, Runyon BA |title=Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=669–74; quiz 675–6 |date=October 1998 |pmid=9798013 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2210672">{{cite journal |vauthors=Runyon BA |title=Monomicrobial nonneutrocytic bacterascites: a variant of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis |journal=Hepatology |volume=12 |issue=4 Pt 1 |pages=710–5 |date=October 1990 |pmid=2210672 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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|Prolonged [[PT]]
|Elevated [[creatinine]] with normal [[BUN]] may indicate isopropyl [[alcohol]] poisoning
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* Decreased serum [[sodium]]
* Peritoneal fluid analysis is the most important component of diagnosis and demonstrates the following:
** Ascitic fluid [[neutrophil]] count > 500 cells/µL
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|[[Perinatal asphyxia]]<ref name="pmid23149172">{{cite journal |vauthors=Selewski DT, Jordan BK, Askenazi DJ, Dechert RE, Sarkar S |title=Acute kidney injury in asphyxiated newborns treated with therapeutic hypothermia |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=162 |issue=4 |pages=725–729.e1 |date=April 2013 |pmid=23149172 |doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.10.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21238703">{{cite journal |vauthors=Durkan AM, Alexander RT |title=Acute kidney injury post neonatal asphyxia |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=158 |issue=2 Suppl |pages=e29–33 |date=February 2011 |pmid=21238703 |doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.11.010 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8747112">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karlowicz MG, Adelman RD |title=Nonoliguric and oliguric acute renal failure in asphyxiated term neonates |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=718–22 |date=December 1995 |pmid=8747112 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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* Decreased [[bicarbonate]]
* May indicate [[infection]], [[hemorrhage]] or [[thrombocytopenia]]
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* Serum [[glucose]] level
* Decreased [[glomerular filtration rate]]  
* Serum blood [[alcohol]] level
* Elevated [[creatinine]] >1.5 mg/dL
* Elevated hepatic [[transaminases]]
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* Toxicology screen for [[acetaminophen]] and [[salicylates]]
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*N/A
* Elevated cardiac [[troponin]] T and I levels are specific for cardiac dysfunction
* Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin is under investigation as a biomarker for [[acute kidney injury]]
* Fetal umbilical artery pH <7.0
* Elevated liver [[transaminases]]
* Coagulation profile should be carried out
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*N/A
* Cranial [[ultrasound]] may indicate the following:
** Focal [[hemorrhage]]
** Ventricular [[dilatation]]
** White matter damage
** [[Cerebral edema]]
** Cystic lesions
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*N/A
* X -ray may demonstrate the following:
** [[Cardiomegaly]]
** Hazy lung fields indicating [[pulmonary edema]]
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*N/A
* Acute brain injury may be seen on MRI
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*N/A
* ECG may demonstrate [[ischemia]] with changes in the ST segment
* Echocardiography may demonstrate the following:
** Decreased left ventricular [[ejection fraction]]
** Right-to-left atrial shunting
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* Serum [[osmolality]] should be calculated
* [[Apgar score]] is very important during assessment
* [[Thiamine]] must be given to avoid [[Wernicke's encephalopathy]]
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|[[Aspergillosis|'''Aspergillosis''']]<ref name="pmid11880955">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marr KA, Carter RA, Crippa F, Wald A, Corey L |title=Epidemiology and outcome of mould infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=34 |issue=7 |pages=909–17 |date=April 2002 |pmid=11880955 |doi=10.1086/339202 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16886149">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cornillet A, Camus C, Nimubona S, Gandemer V, Tattevin P, Belleguic C, Chevrier S, Meunier C, Lebert C, Aupée M, Caulet-Maugendre S, Faucheux M, Lelong B, Leray E, Guiguen C, Gangneux JP |title=Comparison of epidemiological, clinical, and biological features of invasive aspergillosis in neutropenic and nonneutropenic patients: a 6-year survey |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=577–84 |date=September 2006 |pmid=16886149 |doi=10.1086/505870 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16129254">{{cite journal |vauthors=Horger M, Hebart H, Einsele H, Lengerke C, Claussen CD, Vonthein R, Pfannenberg C |title=Initial CT manifestations of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in 45 non-HIV immunocompromised patients: association with patient outcome? |journal=Eur J Radiol |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=437–44 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16129254 |doi=10.1016/j.ejrad.2005.01.001 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Polycythemia]]<ref name="pmid9025165">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gregg XT, Prchal JT |title=Erythropoietin receptor mutations and human disease |journal=Semin. Hematol. |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=70–6 |date=January 1997 |pmid=9025165 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9292543">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kralovics R, Indrak K, Stopka T, Berman BW, Prchal JF, Prchal JT |title=Two new EPO receptor mutations: truncated EPO receptors are most frequently associated with primary familial and congenital polycythemias |journal=Blood |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=2057–61 |date=September 1997 |pmid=9292543 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2297568">{{cite journal |vauthors=Da Silva JL, Lacombe C, Bruneval P, Casadevall N, Leporrier M, Camilleri JP, Bariety J, Tambourin P, Varet B |title=Tumor cells are the site of erythropoietin synthesis in human renal cancers associated with polycythemia |journal=Blood |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=577–82 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2297568 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8855223">{{cite journal |vauthors=Iliopoulos O, Levy AP, Jiang C, Kaelin WG, Goldberg MA |title=Negative regulation of hypoxia-inducible genes by the von Hippel-Lindau protein |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=93 |issue=20 |pages=10595–9 |date=October 1996 |pmid=8855223 |pmc=38198 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11986208">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wiesener MS, Seyfarth M, Warnecke C, Jürgensen JS, Rosenberger C, Morgan NV, Maher ER, Frei U, Eckardt KU |title=Paraneoplastic erythrocytosis associated with an inactivating point mutation of the von Hippel-Lindau gene in a renal cell carcinoma |journal=Blood |volume=99 |issue=10 |pages=3562–5 |date=May 2002 |pmid=11986208 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
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* [[Hematocrit]] > 49% in men
* [[Hematocrit]] > 48% in women
* [[Hemoglobin]] > 16.5 g/dL in men
* [[Hemoglobin]] > 16 g/dL in women
* Total [[red blood cell]] mass ≥ 36 mL/kg in males
* Total [[red blood cell]] mass ≥ 32 mL/kg in females
* [[Thrombocytosis]] > 400,000/μL
* [[Leukocytosis]] with predominant [[neutrophil]]s > 12,000/μL
* Leukocyte [[alkaline phosphatase]] >100 U/L
* Serum vitamin B-12 concentration >900 pg/mL
* [[Hyperuricemia]] may be present
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* Decreased [[erythropoietin]]
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* Oxygen saturation ≥ 92%
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* May demonstrate [[splenomegaly]]
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* May demonstrate [[splenomegaly]]
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* [[JAK2]] mutation
* Bone marrow [[biopsy]] demonstrates:
** Hypercellularity with [[hyperplasia]] of the erythroid, granulocytic, and megakaryocytic cell lines
** [[Myelofibrosis]] may also be present
** [[Prothrombin time]] and [[activated partial thromboplastin time]] may be prolonged
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* [[Phlebotomy]] is the usual form of treatment
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|[[Respiratory distress syndrome]]<ref name="pmid26542877">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hooper SB, Te Pas AB, Kitchen MJ |title=Respiratory transition in the newborn: a three-phase process |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=F266–71 |date=May 2016 |pmid=26542877 |doi=10.1136/archdischild-2013-305704 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17382123">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mariani G, Dik PB, Ezquer A, Aguirre A, Esteban ML, Perez C, Fernandez Jonusas S, Fustiñana C |title=Pre-ductal and post-ductal O2 saturation in healthy term neonates after birth |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=150 |issue=4 |pages=418–21 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17382123 |doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.12.015 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16549212">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jain L, Eaton DC |title=Physiology of fetal lung fluid clearance and the effect of labor |journal=Semin. Perinatol. |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=34–43 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16549212 |doi=10.1053/j.semperi.2006.01.006 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10764292">{{cite journal |vauthors=Avery ME |title=Surfactant deficiency in hyaline membrane disease: the story of discovery |journal=Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. |volume=161 |issue=4 Pt 1 |pages=1074–5 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10764292 |doi=10.1164/ajrccm.161.4.16142 |url=}}</ref>
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*N/A
* Metabolic and respiratory [[acidosis]] may occur with [[hypoxia]]
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*N/A
* Pulse oximetry is useful in diagnosis
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*N/A
* Demonstrates the following:
** Bilateral, diffuse, reticular granular or ground-glass appearance
** Poor lung expansion
** [[Cardiomegaly]] may or may not be present
** Streaky opacities may indicate [[pneumonia]]
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* [[Echocardiography]] is useful in diagnosing [[patent ductus arteriosus]]
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|[[Shock]]<ref name="pmid24171518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vincent JL, De Backer D |title=Circulatory shock |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=369 |issue=18 |pages=1726–34 |date=October 2013 |pmid=24171518 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1208943 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7588190">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rodgers KG |title=Cardiovascular shock |journal=Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=793–810 |date=November 1995 |pmid=7588190 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26903335">{{cite journal |vauthors=Seymour CW, Liu VX, Iwashyna TJ, Brunkhorst FM, Rea TD, Scherag A, Rubenfeld G, Kahn JM, Shankar-Hari M, Singer M, Deutschman CS, Escobar GJ, Angus DC |title=Assessment of Clinical Criteria for Sepsis: For the Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3) |journal=JAMA |volume=315 |issue=8 |pages=762–74 |date=February 2016 |pmid=26903335 |pmc=5433435 |doi=10.1001/jama.2016.0288 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26158402">{{cite journal |vauthors=Churpek MM, Zadravecz FJ, Winslow C, Howell MD, Edelson DP |title=Incidence and Prognostic Value of the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome and Organ Dysfunctions in Ward Patients |journal=Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. |volume=192 |issue=8 |pages=958–64 |date=October 2015 |pmid=26158402 |pmc=4642209 |doi=10.1164/rccm.201502-0275OC |url=}}</ref>
 
- Anaphylactic
 
- Cardiogenic
 
- Hypotensive
 
- Septic
 
- Toxic
 
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*N/A
* Elevated [[hemotocrit]] value may indicate [[hypovolemic shock]]
* [[Anemia]] and/or [[thrombocytopenia]] may indicate [[hemorrhagic shock]]
* Elevated [[eosinophils]] may indicate [[anaphylactic shock]]
* Elevated [[leukocytes]] may suggest [[septic shock]]
* A low white count with bandemia may suggest an undifferentiated shock
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*N/A
* Elevated [[BUN]] and [[creatinine]]
* Decreased GFR
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* [[Aspergillus]] precipitins [[allergy test]] is positive
* [[Hypernatremia]] or [[hyponatremia]]
* [[IgE]] is > 1000 IU/dl
* [[Hypokalemia]] or [[hyperkalemia]]
* [[Fungi]] are identified via:
* [[Hypochloremia]]
** Gomori methenamine silver stain
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** Calcofluor
** Positive culture result from [[sputum]], [[needle biopsy]], or [[bronchoalveolar lavage]]
*** Hyphae are demonstrated
*** Elevated galactomannan level in bronchoalveolar fluid 
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*N/A
* Elevated serum [[lactate]]
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* Pulmonary infiltrates
* Cross matching and blood typing of blood is important for [[blood transfusion]]
* Mucoid plugging
* Prolonged [[prothrombin]] and [[activated partial thromboplastin time]] may indicate [[hemorrhagic shock]]
* Central [[bronchiectasis]]
* Elevated liver [[transaminases]]
* Mass in the upper lobe surrounded by a crescent of air
* In [[cardiogenic shock]]:
* Solitary or multiple cavities
** Elevated [[troponin]] I or [[troponin]] T levels
** Elevated [[creatine phosphokinase]]
** Elevated [[brain natriuretic peptide]], or N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide
* [[Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy]] may occur as a complication, and is determined through elevated [[fibrin split products]] and [[D-dimer]] level with low [[fibrinogen]] level
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* Halo sign (ground-glass appearance with nodules)
* RUSH (Rapid [[ultrasound]] in shock) may detect the following:
* Defines [[bronchiectasis]]
** [[Pulmonary embolism]]
* May show evidence of wedge-shaped pulmonary [[infarction]]
** [[Pericardial effusion]]
* Granulomata, tissue [[necrosis]], and blood vessel invasion may be noted
** [[Cardiac tamponade]]
** Reduced contractility of the right and left ventricle
** [[Pneumothorax]]
** [[Pulmonary edema]]
** Thoracic or [[abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
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*N/A
* May demonstrate the following:
** [[Pneumonia]]
** [[Pneumothorax]]
** [[Pulmonary edema]]
** Widened [[mediastinum]]
** Free air under the [[diaphragm]]
* May also determine etiology of [[shock]], such as:
** Intestinal obstruction
** [[Bowel perforation]]
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*N/A
* Can determine etiology of [[shock]], such as:
** Traumatic brain injury,
** [[Stroke]]
** Spinal injury
** [[Pneumonia]]
** [[Pneumothorax]]
** Ruptured [[aneurysm]]
** [[Aortic dissection]]
** Intestinal obstruction
** Bowel perforation
** [[Abscess]]
** [[Pulmonary embolism]]
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* [[Polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) assays could be useful in diagnosis of invasive [[aspergillosis]]
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|[[Cholera|'''Cholera''']]<ref name="pmid19842974">{{cite journal |vauthors=Weil AA, Khan AI, Chowdhury F, Larocque RC, Faruque AS, Ryan ET, Calderwood SB, Qadri F, Harris JB |title=Clinical outcomes in household contacts of patients with cholera in Bangladesh |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=1473–9 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19842974 |pmc=2783773 |doi=10.1086/644779 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4809112">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cash RA, Music SI, Libonati JP, Snyder MJ, Wenzel RP, Hornick RB |title=Response of man to infection with Vibrio cholerae. I. Clinical, serologic, and bacteriologic responses to a known inoculum |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=129 |issue=1 |pages=45–52 |date=January 1974 |pmid=4809112 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4809112">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cash RA, Music SI, Libonati JP, Snyder MJ, Wenzel RP, Hornick RB |title=Response of man to infection with Vibrio cholerae. I. Clinical, serologic, and bacteriologic responses to a known inoculum |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=129 |issue=1 |pages=45–52 |date=January 1974 |pmid=4809112 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21696312">{{cite journal |vauthors=Harris JB, Ivers LC, Ferraro MJ |title=Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Case 19-2011. A 4-year-old Haitian boy with vomiting and diarrhea |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=364 |issue=25 |pages=2452–61 |date=June 2011 |pmid=21696312 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcpc1100927 |url=}}</ref>
|Third space losses<ref name="pmid10086438">{{cite journal |vauthors=McGee S, Abernethy WB, Simel DL |title=The rational clinical examination. Is this patient hypovolemic? |journal=JAMA |volume=281 |issue=11 |pages=1022–9 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10086438 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid5336422">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohn JN |title=Blood pressure measurement in shock. Mechanism of inaccuracy in ausculatory and palpatory methods |journal=JAMA |volume=199 |issue=13 |pages=118–22 |date=March 1967 |pmid=5336422 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17060544">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vinayak AG, Levitt J, Gehlbach B, Pohlman AS, Hall JB, Kress JP |title=Usefulness of the external jugular vein examination in detecting abnormal central venous pressure in critically ill patients |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=166 |issue=19 |pages=2132–7 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17060544 |doi=10.1001/archinte.166.19.2132 |url=}}</ref>
- Capillary leak
 
- [[Surgery]]
 
- [[Trauma]]
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* [[Normocytic normochromic anemia]]
* Decreased [[hematocrit]]
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* Elevated [[BUN]] and [[creatinine]]
* Elevated GFR
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* May demonstrate [[proteinuria]] or [[hematuria]]
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* Elevated [[lactate dehydrogenase]]
* Elevated [[alkaline phosphatase]]
* Hypo or [[hypernatremia]]
* Hypo or [[hyperkalemia]]
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* May visualize fluid collections
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* More accurately visualize the following:
** Margins of trauma
** Fluid collection
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* Useful for diagnosis of soft tissue injury
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|-
|[[Toxic megacolon]]<ref name="pmid5305933">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jalan KN, Sircus W, Card WI, Falconer CW, Bruce CB, Crean GP, McManus JP, Small WP, Smith AN |title=An experience of ulcerative colitis. I. Toxic dilation in 55 cases |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=68–82 |date=July 1969 |pmid=5305933 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7555415">{{cite journal |vauthors=Trudel JL, Deschênes M, Mayrand S, Barkun AN |title=Toxic megacolon complicating pseudomembranous enterocolitis |journal=Dis. Colon Rectum |volume=38 |issue=10 |pages=1033–8 |date=October 1995 |pmid=7555415 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14638335">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gan SI, Beck PL |title=A new look at toxic megacolon: an update and review of incidence, etiology, pathogenesis, and management |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=98 |issue=11 |pages=2363–71 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14638335 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2003.07696.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12067">{{cite journal |vauthors=Caprilli R, Vernia P, Colaneri O, Torsoli A |title=Blood pH: a test for assessment of severity in proctocolitis |journal=Gut |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=763–9 |date=October 1976 |pmid=12067 |pmc=1411181 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*[[Leukocytosis]] without left shift is noted
* [[Leukocytosis]] with left shift
* Elevated [[hematocrit]]
* [[Anemia]] (if [[diarrhea]] is present)
|
* [[Creatinine]] and [[BUN]] may be elevated
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
* [[Hyponatremia]] is common
|
|
* Elevated [[blood urea nitrogen]]
* Elevated [[ESR]] and [[CRP]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
|
|
* Serum [[sodium]] < 135 mmol/l
* Ultrasound may demonstrate the following:
* Elevated [[calcium]]
** Loss of haustra
* Elevated [[magnesium]]
** Hypoechoic and thick bowel walls
** Dilated [[colon]] > 6cm
** Dilatation of ileal loops
** Presence of intraluminal gas and fluid
|
|
*N/A
* The following is noted with x-ray:
* Dilated [[colon]]
* Loss of haustra
* Soft tissue masses
* Segmental parietal thinning
* Free intraperitoneal air
|
|
* Elevated [[lactate]]
* May demonstrate the following:
* Serum [[bicarbonate]] < 15 mmol/l
** Bowel perforation
** [[Abscess]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* Stool is used in dark field examination or PCR to visualize [[vibrio cholerae]]
* [[Endoscopy]] and [[colonoscopy]] can aid diagnosis
* Stool culture is carried out using thiosulfate-citrate-bile-sucrose-agar
* Serotyping may be performed using an anti-serum
* Elevated serum [[protein]] is noted
* Elevated serum-specific gravity is noted
* Elevated blood [[glucose]] may be detected
|
|
*N/A
|-
! rowspan="3" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Classification by etiology
! rowspan="3" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Etiology
! colspan="10" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Clinical manifestations
! colspan="11" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Paraclinical findings
! rowspan="3" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Comments
|-
! colspan="10" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Symptoms and signs
! colspan="6" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Lab findings
! colspan="5" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Imaging
|-
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Fatigue/Lethargy
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Thirst
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Dizziness/Confusion
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Muscle weakness/cramp
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Somatic/visceral pain
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Vomiting
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Diarrhea
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Tachypnea
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Haematuria/Proteinuria
! align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Edema
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |CBC
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |KFT
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Electrolytes
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Urine analysis
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |ABG
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Other
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Ultrasound
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |X-ray
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |CT
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |MRI
| align="center" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Other
|-
! rowspan="14" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" |Intrinsic renal
|[[Acute interstitial nephritis]]<ref name="pmid11020015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schwarz A, Krause PH, Kunzendorf U, Keller F, Distler A |title=The outcome of acute interstitial nephritis: risk factors for the transition from acute to chronic interstitial nephritis |journal=Clin. Nephrol. |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=179–90 |date=September 2000 |pmid=11020015 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20336051">{{cite journal |vauthors=Praga M, González E |title=Acute interstitial nephritis |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=77 |issue=11 |pages=956–61 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20336051 |doi=10.1038/ki.2010.89 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2113219">{{cite journal |vauthors=Buysen JG, Houthoff HJ, Krediet RT, Arisz L |title=Acute interstitial nephritis: a clinical and morphological study in 27 patients |journal=Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=94–9 |date=1990 |pmid=2113219 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11473672">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rossert J |title=Drug-induced acute interstitial nephritis |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=804–17 |date=August 2001 |pmid=11473672 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.060002804.x |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* [[Eosinophilia]] may be present
|
|
*N/A
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* High fractional [[sodium]] excretion
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
* Eosinophiluria
* [[Sterile pyuria]]
* [[Microscopic hematuria]]
* [[Proteinuria]]
* Red cell or white cell casts
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Patients with immunoglobulin G4 - related disease may have elevated serum total IgG and/or IgG4 levels
|
|
*N/A
* [[Ultrasound]] demonstrates normal-sized kidneys
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* History of long term [[analgesic]] use is common
|-
|-
|'''[[Congestive heart failure]] (CHF)'''<ref name="pmid17724259">{{cite journal |vauthors=Solomon SD, Dobson J, Pocock S, Skali H, McMurray JJ, Granger CB, Yusuf S, Swedberg K, Young JB, Michelson EL, Pfeffer MA |title=Influence of nonfatal hospitalization for heart failure on subsequent mortality in patients with chronic heart failure |journal=Circulation |volume=116 |issue=13 |pages=1482–7 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17724259 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.696906 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15687312">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fonarow GC, Adams KF, Abraham WT, Yancy CW, Boscardin WJ |title=Risk stratification for in-hospital mortality in acutely decompensated heart failure: classification and regression tree analysis |journal=JAMA |volume=293 |issue=5 |pages=572–80 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15687312 |doi=10.1001/jama.293.5.572 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12798577">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kittleson M, Hurwitz S, Shah MR, Nohria A, Lewis E, Givertz M, Fang J, Jarcho J, Mudge G, Stevenson LW |title=Development of circulatory-renal limitations to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors identifies patients with severe heart failure and early mortality |journal=J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. |volume=41 |issue=11 |pages=2029–35 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12798577 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17602982">{{cite journal |vauthors=Filippatos G, Rossi J, Lloyd-Jones DM, Stough WG, Ouyang J, Shin DD, O'connor C, Adams KF, Orlandi C, Gheorghiade M |title=Prognostic value of blood urea nitrogen in patients hospitalized with worsening heart failure: insights from the Acute and Chronic Therapeutic Impact of a Vasopressin Antagonist in Chronic Heart Failure (ACTIV in CHF) study |journal=J. Card. Fail. |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=360–4 |date=June 2007 |pmid=17602982 |doi=10.1016/j.cardfail.2007.02.005 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22554602">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zamora E, Lupón J, Vila J, Urrutia A, de Antonio M, Sanz H, Grau M, Ara J, Bayés-Genís A |title=Estimated glomerular filtration rate and prognosis in heart failure: value of the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study-4, chronic kidney disease epidemiology collaboration, and cockroft-gault formulas |journal=J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. |volume=59 |issue=19 |pages=1709–15 |date=May 2012 |pmid=22554602 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2011.11.066 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22441773">{{cite journal |vauthors=McAlister FA, Ezekowitz J, Tarantini L, Squire I, Komajda M, Bayes-Genis A, Gotsman I, Whalley G, Earle N, Poppe KK, Doughty RN |title=Renal dysfunction in patients with heart failure with preserved versus reduced ejection fraction: impact of the new Chronic Kidney Disease-Epidemiology Collaboration Group formula |journal=Circ Heart Fail |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=309–14 |date=May 2012 |pmid=22441773 |doi=10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.111.966242 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Acute tubular necrosis]]<ref name="pmid22890468">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khwaja A |title=KDIGO clinical practice guidelines for acute kidney injury |journal=Nephron Clin Pract |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=c179–84 |date=2012 |pmid=22890468 |doi=10.1159/000339789 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15680458">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lameire N, Van Biesen W, Vanholder R |title=Acute renal failure |journal=Lancet |volume=365 |issue=9457 |pages=417–30 |date=2005 |pmid=15680458 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17831-3 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17507907">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hsu CY, McCulloch CE, Fan D, Ordoñez JD, Chertow GM, Go AS |title=Community-based incidence of acute renal failure |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=208–12 |date=July 2007 |pmid=17507907 |pmc=2673495 |doi=10.1038/sj.ki.5002297 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16495376">{{cite journal |vauthors=Waikar SS, Curhan GC, Wald R, McCarthy EP, Chertow GM |title=Declining mortality in patients with acute renal failure, 1988 to 2002 |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=1143–50 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16495376 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2005091017 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16106006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Uchino S, Kellum JA, Bellomo R, Doig GS, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, Schetz M, Tan I, Bouman C, Macedo E, Gibney N, Tolwani A, Ronco C |title=Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a multinational, multicenter study |journal=JAMA |volume=294 |issue=7 |pages=813–8 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16106006 |doi=10.1001/jama.294.7.813 |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
| +
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
* May indicate [[anemia]]
* [[Anemia]]
* [[Leukocytosis]] may be detected
|
|
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated fractional excretion of [[sodium]]
 
* Serum [[sodium]] may be decreased
* Serum [[potassium]] may be elevated
|
|
*N/A
* [[Hyponatremia]]
* [[Hyperkalemia]]
* [[Hypermagnesemia]]
* [[Hypocalcemia]]
* [[Hyperphosphatemia]]
|
|
* Serum [[bicarbonate]] may be decreased
* Pigmented, muddy brown, granular casts
* Serum [[lactate]] may be elevated
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* [[Metabolic acidosis]] may be present
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* [[Brain natriuretic peptide]] (BNP) or N -terminal prohormone BNP may be elevated and indicate ventricular dilatation
* Ultrasound can determine:
* Cardiac [[troponin]]s may be elevated
** [[Obstructive uropathy]]  
* [[Pulse oximetry]] may indicate [[hypoxemia]]
** Renal size
** Cortical thickness
** [[Hydronephrosis]]
|
|
*N/A
* May be useful in cases with [[nephrolithiasis]]
|
|
* May demonstrate:
* May be useful in cases with [[nephrolithiasis]]
** [[Cardiomegaly]]
* May also determine area of obstruction
** [[Pulmonary hypertension]]
** [[Pleural effusions]]
|
|
* More accurate visualization of [[pulmonary edema]]
* May also determine area of obstruction
|
|
*N/A
* Renal biopsy may demonstrate the following:
|
** Loss of tubular cells or the denuded tubules
* Useful in detecting congenital cardiac anomalies and assessment [[valvular heart disease]]
** Swollen tubular cells
* Delayed enhancement cardiovascular [[magnetic resonance imaging]] is useful in identifying the etiology of acute [[chest pain]]
** Loss of the cell brush border
|
* Useful kidney function biomarkers:
* [[Echocardiography]] demonstrates decreased [[ejection fraction]]
** Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin
** Also demonstrates left and right ventricular function and filling pressures
** Interleukin-18
* [[Electrocardiogram]] (ECG) may indicate a [[myocardial infarction]] or [[ischemia]], [[arrhythmia]] or atrioventricular block
** Kidney injury molecule 1
* Nuclear imaging can be used to assess heart function and damage in [[CHF]], such as:
** Cystatin C
** ECG-gated myocardial perfusion imaging
** Sodium/hydrogen exchanger isoform 3
** ECG-gated single-photon emission CT
|  
|
* [[Furosemide]] stress testing can predict stage
*N/A
|-
|-
|[[Dehydration|'''Dehydration''']]<ref name="pmid15187057">{{cite journal |vauthors=Steiner MJ, DeWalt DA, Byerley JS |title=Is this child dehydrated? |journal=JAMA |volume=291 |issue=22 |pages=2746–54 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15187057 |doi=10.1001/jama.291.22.2746 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9220501">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vega RM, Avner JR |title=A prospective study of the usefulness of clinical and laboratory parameters for predicting percentage of dehydration in children |journal=Pediatr Emerg Care |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=179–82 |date=June 1997 |pmid=9220501 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid5928490">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dossetor JB |title=Creatininemia versus uremia. The relative significance of blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine concentrations in azotemia |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=1287–99 |date=December 1966 |pmid=5928490 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2198971">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baskett PJ |title=ABC of major trauma. Management of hypovolaemic shock |journal=BMJ |volume=300 |issue=6737 |pages=1453–7 |date=June 1990 |pmid=2198971 |pmc=1663124 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|[[Cancer]]<ref name="pmid16360438">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gudbjartsson T, Thoroddsen A, Petursdottir V, Hardarson S, Magnusson J, Einarsson GV |title=Effect of incidental detection for survival of patients with renal cell carcinoma: results of population-based study of 701 patients |journal=Urology |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=1186–91 |date=December 2005 |pmid=16360438 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2005.07.009 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid5125665">{{cite journal |vauthors=Skinner DG, Colvin RB, Vermillion CD, Pfister RC, Leadbetter WF |title=Diagnosis and management of renal cell carcinoma. A clinical and pathologic study of 309 cases |journal=Cancer |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1165–77 |date=November 1971 |pmid=5125665 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid788291">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gibbons RP, Monte JE, Correa RJ, Mason JT |title=Manifestations of renal cell carcinoma |journal=Urology |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=201–6 |date=September 1976 |pmid=788291 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7124769">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pras M, Franklin EC, Shibolet S, Frangione B |title=Amyloidosis associated with renal cell carcinoma of the AA type |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=426–8 |date=September 1982 |pmid=7124769 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4595951">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chisholm GD |title=Nephrogenic ridge tumors and their syndromes |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=230 |issue= |pages=403–23 |date=1974 |pmid=4595951 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
- Burns
- [[Renal cell carcinoma]]


-Cutaneous loss e.g. sweating
- [[Metastatic cancer]]
 
- Inadequate water intake
 
- Salt-wasting nephropathy
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
Line 242: Line 540:
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* May reveal normocytic or [[microcytic anemia]]
* [[Leukocytosis]] or [[lymphocytosis]]
* Elevated [[reticulocytes]]
* [[Thrombocytopenia]]
* [[Leukopenia]]
* Blast cells
|
|
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Decreased GFR
* Decreased or increased production of [[erythropoietin]]
|
|
* Serum [[sodium]] < 135 mmol/l
* [[Hyponatremia]]
* Serum [[chloride]] is decreased
* [[Hypomagnesemia]]
* Elevated [[potassium]]
* Hyper or [[hypocalcemia]]
* [[Hypophosphatemia]]
* Hyper or [[hypokalemia]]
|
|
* [[Ketone]]s and [[glucose]] may be detected
* Gross [[hematuria]]
* Urine specific gravity is elevated
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
* Serum [[bicarbonate]] is decreased
* Elevated [[lactate]]
|
|
* [[Hypoglycemia]] may be detected
* Elevated liver [[transaminases]]
|
|
*N/A
* Ultrasound can detect fluid collection and morphologic change
* Flank mass
|
|
*N/A
* Can delineate [[tumor]], visualize [[calcification]] and widened mediastinae
* [[Barium]] contrast may show filling defects
|
|
*N/A
* May accurately visualize metastasis and determine staging
* Distinguish cystic from solid masses
* Determine [[lymph node]], [[renal vein]], and [[inferior vena cava]] involvement
|
|
*N/A
* May determine soft tissue invasion and staging
|
|
*N/A
* Percutaneous cyst puncture may aid diagnosis of malignant cystic lesions
|
|
* [[Oral rehydration therapy]] is the usual line of treatment
* Histology can determine type of [[cancer]]
* [[Renal cell carcinoma]] can be divided into the following types:
** Clear cell (75%)
** Chromophilic (15%)
** Chromophobic (5%)
** Oncocytoma (3%)
** Collecting duct (2%)
|-
|-
|'''[[Diarrhea]] and/or [[vomiting]]'''<ref name="pmid2178747">{{cite journal |vauthors=Carpenter DO |title=Neural mechanisms of emesis |journal=Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=230–6 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2178747 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22454468">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bresee JS, Marcus R, Venezia RA, Keene WE, Morse D, Thanassi M, Brunett P, Bulens S, Beard RS, Dauphin LA, Slutsker L, Bopp C, Eberhard M, Hall A, Vinje J, Monroe SS, Glass RI |title=The etiology of severe acute gastroenteritis among adults visiting emergency departments in the United States |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=205 |issue=9 |pages=1374–81 |date=May 2012 |pmid=22454468 |doi=10.1093/infdis/jis206 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21801613">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hall AJ, Rosenthal M, Gregoricus N, Greene SA, Ferguson J, Henao OL, Vinjé J, Lopman BA, Parashar UD, Widdowson MA |title=Incidence of acute gastroenteritis and role of norovirus, Georgia, USA, 2004-2005 |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis. |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=1381–8 |date=August 2011 |pmid=21801613 |pmc=3381564 |doi=10.3201/eid1708.101533 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid29053792">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shane AL, Mody RK, Crump JA, Tarr PI, Steiner TS, Kotloff K, Langley JM, Wanke C, Warren CA, Cheng AC, Cantey J, Pickering LK |title=2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Infectious Diarrhea |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=65 |issue=12 |pages=e45–e80 |date=November 2017 |pmid=29053792 |doi=10.1093/cid/cix669 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Chronic kidney failure]]<ref name="pmid20054047">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abboud H, Henrich WL |title=Clinical practice. Stage IV chronic kidney disease |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=362 |issue=1 |pages=56–65 |date=January 2010 |pmid=20054047 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp0906797 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28614683">{{cite journal |vauthors=Denic A, Mathew J, Lerman LO, Lieske JC, Larson JJ, Alexander MP, Poggio E, Glassock RJ, Rule AD |title=Single-Nephron Glomerular Filtration Rate in Healthy Adults |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=376 |issue=24 |pages=2349–2357 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28614683 |pmc=5664219 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1614329 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15738453">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sarnak MJ, Greene T, Wang X, Beck G, Kusek JW, Collins AJ, Levey AS |title=The effect of a lower target blood pressure on the progression of kidney disease: long-term follow-up of the modification of diet in renal disease study |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=142 |issue=5 |pages=342–51 |date=March 2005 |pmid=15738453 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16408129">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eriksen BO, Ingebretsen OC |title=The progression of chronic kidney disease: a 10-year population-based study of the effects of gender and age |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=375–82 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16408129 |doi=10.1038/sj.ki.5000058 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16790511">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hallan SI, Coresh J, Astor BC, Asberg A, Powe NR, Romundstad S, Hallan HA, Lydersen S, Holmen J |title=International comparison of the relationship of chronic kidney disease prevalence and ESRD risk |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=2275–84 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16790511 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2005121273 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15262664">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hsu CY, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Shlipak MG |title=The incidence of end-stage renal disease is increasing faster than the prevalence of chronic renal insufficiency |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=141 |issue=2 |pages=95–101 |date=July 2004 |pmid=15262664 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
Line 281: Line 599:
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* [[Leukocytosis]] with predominant [[neutrophilia]] may be detected
* [[Anemia]] is present
* Elevated [[ESR]] may be detected
|
|
*N/A
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Decreased GFR
|
|
* Stool anion gap should be calculated
* [[Hyperkalemia]]
|
|
* [[Urine]] may be postive for:
* [[Hypoalbuminuria]]
** [[Ketones]]
** Organic acids
** Ester-to-free carnitine ratio
** [[Porphobilinogen]]
** [[Aminolevulinic acid]]  
|
|
*N/A
* Low [[bicarbonate]]
|
|
* Stool pH < 5.5
* To determine renal bone disease, the following may be performed:
* Stool culture may be positive for ''[[vibrio]]'' and plesiomonas species, [[Clostridium difficile|''clostridium difficile'']], [[salmonella|''salmonella'']], [[shigella]], [[campylobacter|''campylobacter'']], and  [[Yersinia enterocolitica|''yersinia enterocolitica'']]  
** Serum [[phosphate]]
* Serotyping for ''[[E. coli]]'' O157:H7
** 25 - hydroxyvitamin D
* Enzyme immunoassay may be positive for [[rotavirus]] or [[adenovirus]]  
** [[Alkaline phosphatase]]
* Elevated liver [[transaminases]] may be detected
** [[Parathyroid hormone]]
* Elevated pancreatic [[amylase]] and [[lipase]] may be detected
* To determine kidney function, C - cystatin may be measured
|
|
* Abdominal [[ultrasound]] may be useful to detect cause
* May indicate [[hydronephrosis]]
* [[Retroperitoneal fibrosis]]
* Mass
* Enlarged or shrunken kidneys
|
|
* Upper gastrointestinal radiography with follow-through may be useful to detect cause
* May demonstrate [[nephrolithiasis]]
* Retrograde pyelogram may determine obstruction
|
|
*N/A
* May determine renal masses, stones, and cysts
|
|
* Brain MRI may be useful to detect cause
* Useful in those who are contraindicated for intravenous contrast
* May determine [[renal vein thrombosis]]
* Magnetic resonance [[angiography]] can diagnose [[renal artery stenosis]]
|
|
* Esophagogastroduodenoscopy may be useful to detect cause
* Percutaneous renal [[biopsy]] is also useful in diagnosis
|
|
* Treatment must include volume replacement
|-
|-
|'''[[Drugs]]/[[Toxin|toxins]]'''<ref name="pmid1883120">{{cite journal |vauthors=Toto RD, Mitchell HC, Lee HC, Milam C, Pettinger WA |title=Reversible renal insufficiency due to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in hypertensive nephrosclerosis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=115 |issue=7 |pages=513–9 |date=October 1991 |pmid=1883120 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4715199">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bismuth C, Gaultier M, Conso F, Efthymiou ML |title=Hyperkalemia in acute digitalis poisoning: prognostic significance and therapeutic implications |journal=Clin. Toxicol. |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=153–62 |date=1973 |pmid=4715199 |doi=10.3109/15563657308990513 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7579079">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sawaya BP, Briggs JP, Schnermann J |title=Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity: the adverse consequences of altered membrane properties |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=154–64 |date=August 1995 |pmid=7579079 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10390124">{{cite journal |vauthors=Whelton A |title=Nephrotoxicity of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: physiologic foundations and clinical implications |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=106 |issue=5B |pages=13S–24S |date=May 1999 |pmid=10390124 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|[[Congenital kidney disease]]<ref name="pmid12197558">{{cite journal |vauthors=Queisser-Luft A, Stolz G, Wiesel A, Schlaefer K, Spranger J |title=Malformations in newborn: results based on 30,940 infants and fetuses from the Mainz congenital birth defect monitoring system (1990-1998) |journal=Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. |volume=266 |issue=3 |pages=163–7 |date=July 2002 |pmid=12197558 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19536081">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanna-Cherchi S, Ravani P, Corbani V, Parodi S, Haupt R, Piaggio G, Innocenti ML, Somenzi D, Trivelli A, Caridi G, Izzi C, Scolari F, Mattioli G, Allegri L, Ghiggeri GM |title=Renal outcome in patients with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=528–33 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19536081 |doi=10.1038/ki.2009.220 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11992035">{{cite journal |vauthors=Glassberg KI |title=Normal and abnormal development of the kidney: a clinician's interpretation of current knowledge |journal=J. Urol. |volume=167 |issue=6 |pages=2339–50; discussion 2350–1 |date=June 2002 |pmid=11992035 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19685083">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tabatabaeifar M, Schlingmann KP, Litwin M, Emre S, Bakkaloglu A, Mehls O, Antignac C, Schaefer F, Weber S |title=Functional analysis of BMP4 mutations identified in pediatric CAKUT patients |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=2361–8 |date=December 2009 |pmid=19685083 |doi=10.1007/s00467-009-1287-6 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19615554">{{cite journal |vauthors=Reidy KJ, Rosenblum ND |title=Cell and molecular biology of kidney development |journal=Semin. Nephrol. |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=321–37 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19615554 |pmc=2789488 |doi=10.1016/j.semnephrol.2009.03.009 |url=}}</ref>
- [[ACE inhibitor]]
- [[Agenesis]]
 
- [[Aminoglycosides]]
 
- [[Amphotericin B]]


- [[Contrast medium|Contrast]] material
- [[Dysplasia]]


- [[Cyclosporin]]
- [[Hypoplasia]]
 
- [[Diuretics]]
 
- [[Digitalis]]
 
- [[Heavy metals]]
 
- [[Indomethacin]]
 
- [[Tacrolimus]]
 
- [[NSAIDs]]


- [[Polycystic]]
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Elevated [[hematocrit]]
|
|
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Decreased GFR
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[creatine kinase]]
|
|
* [[Potassium]] > 5.5 mEq/l with [[ACE inhibitors]]
* [[Hypocalcemia]]
* [[Hypomagnesemia]], [[hypokalemia]], [[hypocalcemia]], and [[hypophosphatemia]] with [[aminoglycosides]]
* [[Hypophosphatemia]]
|
|
* [[Urine]] sample may detect drug
* [[Microalbuminuria]]
* [[Glucosuria]], [[aminoaciduria]], [[phosphaturia]], [[ketonuria]], and [[uricosuria]] may be detected
* [[Uricosuria]]
* Urine [[osmolality]] should be calculated
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* Urine [[pH]] should be detected
* Bland [[urine]] sediment may be detected
* [[Hyaline cast]]s may be detected
* Granular casts may be detected
* Red blood cell casts may be detected
* Dysmorphic red blood cells may be present
* Red blood cell casts may be detected
* Absence of [[proteinuria]] differentiates between [[acute kidney injury]] and [[acute interstitial nephritis]]
|
|
* Serum osmolar gap should be calculated
* Genetic testing for ADPKD1 and ADPKD2
* Elevated [[lactate]] may be detected
* [[Metabolic acidosis]] may be present
|
|
* Blood [[glucose]] should be measured
* Ultrasound is the gold standard for visualization of cysts
* Toxicology screening is crucial in aiding diagnosis
* Rapid immunoassay screens may also aid diagnosis
|
|
* Useful in drug-induced nephropathies
* More sensitive than ultrasound and can detect small cysts (0.5 cm)
|
|
* Some radio-opaque substances may be visualized
* Useful for determining kidney size and progression
* Ingested drug packets may also be visualized
* Magnetic resonance [[angiography]] may determine intracranial aneurysms
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
|
*N/A
|
* [[ECG]] may be helpful in diagnosing [[arrhythmia]]s
|
*N/A
|-
|-
|[[Esophageal varices|'''Esophageal varices bleeding''']]<ref name="pmid6970703">{{cite journal |vauthors=Graham DY, Smith JL |title=The course of patients after variceal hemorrhage |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=800–9 |date=April 1981 |pmid=6970703 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20638742">{{cite journal |vauthors=de Franchis R |title=Revising consensus in portal hypertension: report of the Baveno V consensus workshop on methodology of diagnosis and therapy in portal hypertension |journal=J. Hepatol. |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=762–8 |date=October 2010 |pmid=20638742 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2010.06.004 |url=}}</ref>
|[[End stage renal disease]]<ref name="pmid20054047">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abboud H, Henrich WL |title=Clinical practice. Stage IV chronic kidney disease |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=362 |issue=1 |pages=56–65 |date=January 2010 |pmid=20054047 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp0906797 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28614683">{{cite journal |vauthors=Denic A, Mathew J, Lerman LO, Lieske JC, Larson JJ, Alexander MP, Poggio E, Glassock RJ, Rule AD |title=Single-Nephron Glomerular Filtration Rate in Healthy Adults |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=376 |issue=24 |pages=2349–2357 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28614683 |pmc=5664219 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1614329 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15738453">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sarnak MJ, Greene T, Wang X, Beck G, Kusek JW, Collins AJ, Levey AS |title=The effect of a lower target blood pressure on the progression of kidney disease: long-term follow-up of the modification of diet in renal disease study |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=142 |issue=5 |pages=342–51 |date=March 2005 |pmid=15738453 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16408129">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eriksen BO, Ingebretsen OC |title=The progression of chronic kidney disease: a 10-year population-based study of the effects of gender and age |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=375–82 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16408129 |doi=10.1038/sj.ki.5000058 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16790511">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hallan SI, Coresh J, Astor BC, Asberg A, Powe NR, Romundstad S, Hallan HA, Lydersen S, Holmen J |title=International comparison of the relationship of chronic kidney disease prevalence and ESRD risk |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=2275–84 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16790511 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2005121273 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15262664">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hsu CY, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Shlipak MG |title=The incidence of end-stage renal disease is increasing faster than the prevalence of chronic renal insufficiency |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=141 |issue=2 |pages=95–101 |date=July 2004 |pmid=15262664 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
Line 405: Line 687:
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
|
* May show [[normocytic normochromic anemia]]
* [[Hematocrit]] may be decreased
|
|
*In uncontrolled bleeding:
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
** Elevated [[BUN]]
* Elevated [[BUN]]
** Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Decreased GFR
|
|
*N/A
* [[Hyperkalemia]]
|
|
*N/A
* [[Hypoalbuminuria]]
|
|
*N/A
* Low [[bicarbonate]]
|
|
*N/A
* To determine renal bone disease, the following may be performed:
** Serum [[phosphate]]
** 25 - hydroxyvitamin D
** [[Alkaline phosphatase]]
** [[Parathyroid hormone]]
* To determine kidney function, C - cystatin may be measured
|
|
* Duplex doppler [[ultrasonography]] can determine:
* May indicate [[hydronephrosis]]
** Velocity and direction of portal flow
* [[Retroperitoneal fibrosis]]
** Determine portal vein patency
* Mass
* Endoscopic [[ultrasonography]] may also be useful
* Enlarged or shrunken kidneys
|
|
* Abnormal opacities representing paraesophageal [[varices]] may be detected outside the [[esophageal]] wall
* May demonstrate [[nephrolithiasis]]
* The short or long segment of the descending [[aorta]] may be obliterated
* Retrograde pyelogram may determine obstruction
* A posterior [[mediastinal]] or intraparenchymal mass may be noted
* A dilated [[azygous vein]] may be noted and is described as a "downhill varix"
* Dilated collaterals may lead to a widened [[superior mediastinum]]
* [[Barium swallow]] demonstrates snake-like filling defects
|
|
* Can visualize the entire portal venous system
* May determine renal masses, stones,  and cysts
|
|
* Can visualize the entire portal venous system
* Useful in those who are contraindicated for intravenous contrast
* Portrays [[esophageal varices]] as flow voids
* May determine [[renal vein thrombosis]]
* Magnetic resonance [[angiography]] can diagnose [[[renal artery stenosis]]  
|
|
* [[Positron emission tomography]] can determine portal hypertension and evaluate [[esophageal varices]]
* Percutaneous renal [[biopsy]] is also useful in diagnosis
* A flexible [[endoscope]] may also aid diagnosis
* Bleeding is stopped by [[vasopressin]], balloon tamponade, or [[transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt]] to name a few.
|
|
*N/A
|-
|-
|'''[[Heart disease]]'''<ref name="pmid2030718">{{cite journal |vauthors=LaCroix AZ, Lang J, Scherr P, Wallace RB, Cornoni-Huntley J, Berkman L, Curb JD, Evans D, Hennekens CH |title=Smoking and mortality among older men and women in three communities |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=324 |issue=23 |pages=1619–25 |date=June 1991 |pmid=2030718 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199106063242303 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19581259">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mahle WT, Newburger JW, Matherne GP, Smith FC, Hoke TR, Koppel R, Gidding SS, Beekman RH, Grosse SD |title=Role of pulse oximetry in examining newborns for congenital heart disease: a scientific statement from the AHA and AAP |journal=Pediatrics |volume=124 |issue=2 |pages=823–36 |date=August 2009 |pmid=19581259 |doi=10.1542/peds.2009-1397 |url=}}</ref>
|Endogenous toxins<ref name="pmid20533382">{{cite journal |vauthors=Borowitz MJ, Craig FE, Digiuseppe JA, Illingworth AJ, Rosse W, Sutherland DR, Wittwer CT, Richards SJ |title=Guidelines for the diagnosis and monitoring of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria and related disorders by flow cytometry |journal=Cytometry B Clin Cytom |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=211–30 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20533382 |doi=10.1002/cyto.b.20525 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6282181">{{cite journal |vauthors=Knochel JP |title=Rhabdomyolysis and myoglobinuria |journal=Annu. Rev. Med. |volume=33 |issue= |pages=435–43 |date=1982 |pmid=6282181 |doi=10.1146/annurev.me.33.020182.002251 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17338959">{{cite journal |vauthors=Giannoglou GD, Chatzizisis YS, Misirli G |title=The syndrome of rhabdomyolysis: Pathophysiology and diagnosis |journal=Eur. J. Intern. Med. |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=90–100 |date=March 2007 |pmid=17338959 |doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2006.09.020 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6645213">{{cite journal |vauthors=Coe FL |title=Uric acid and calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=392–403 |date=September 1983 |pmid=6645213 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15202612">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maalouf NM, Cameron MA, Moe OW, Sakhaee K |title=Novel insights into the pathogenesis of uric acid nephrolithiasis |journal=Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=181–9 |date=March 2004 |pmid=15202612 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  
-Congenital
- [[Hemoglobin]]
 
- [[Myoglobin]]


-Acquired
- [[Uric acid]]
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
* [[ESR]] and [[CRP]] may be elevated
* May indicate [[anemia]] or [[thrombocytopenia]]
|
|
* [[BUN]] and [[creatinine]] may be elevated
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Decreased GFR
|
|
*N/A
* [[Hyperkalemia]]
* [[Hypocalcemia]]  due to [[hyperphosphatemia]]
* [[Hyperuricemia]]
|
|
*N/A
* [[Uricosuria]]
* [[Hematuria]]
* [[Myoglobinuria]]
* Casts
* Urinary sediment
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Elevated [[creatine kinase]] > 1000 U/L
|
|
* For [[coronary heart disease]], [[cardiac stress testing]] may be performed:
* Ultrasound may determine the following:
* For [[rheumatic heart disease]], the following tests may be performed:
** Malignant or cystic lesions
** [[Throat culture]] may be positive for group A beta hemolytic [[streptococci]]  
** [[Hydronephrosis]]
** Rapid antigen detection test may be positive for  group A streptococcal antigen
** [[Hydroureter]]
** Antistreptococcal antibodies may be detected
** [[Nephrocalcinosis]]
** Heart reactive antibodies may be detected against M protein
** Urolithiasis
** Rapid detection test for D8/17 B cell markers
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* Hyperoxia test can distinguish cardiac from non - cardiac causes of [[cyanosis]]
* [[Pulse oximetry]] is useful in congenital heart diseases
|
|
* [[Ultrasound]] visualizes anatomy of the heart and in particular, the chambers and chamber flow
* Spiral CT may determine the following:
|
** Urolithiasis
* May visualize heart anatomy and vessels such as:
** [[Wilms tumor]]
** [[Cardiomegaly]]
** [[Polycystic kidney disease]]
** [[Dextrocardia]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
** Abnormal cardiac silhouette
|
*N/A
|
*N/A
|
|
* [[ECG]] may demonstrate:
* Voiding cystourethrograms may detect ureter or bladder abnormalities
** [[Arrhythmias]] such as:
* Radionuclide studies may visualize calculi
*** [[Sinus tachycardia]]
*** Multifocal atrial [[tachycardia]]
*** [[Prolonged PR interval]] in [[atrioventricular block]]
*** [[Atrial fibrillation]]
*** [[Atrial flutter]]
** [[Pericarditis]] by ST segment elevation mostly in lead II, III, aVF, and V4 - V6
* [[Echocardiography]] may detect the following:
** [[Ventricular dysfunction]]
** Left and right ventricular [[hypertrophy]]
** Chronic mitral valve disease
** [[Mitral stenosis]]
** [[Mitral insufficiency]]
** Left atrial dilation
** Left atrial enlargement
** [[Aortic stenosis]]
** [[Aortic insufficiency]]
** [[Tricuspid insufficiency]]
** [[Pulmonary stenosis]]
** [[Pulmonary insufficiency]]
|
|
* History and physical examination (auscultation of the heart) are important for diagnosis
|-
|-
|[[Hemorrhage|'''Hemorrhage''']]<ref name="pmid21098468">{{cite journal |vauthors=Achneck HE, Sileshi B, Parikh A, Milano CA, Welsby IJ, Lawson JH |title=Pathophysiology of bleeding and clotting in the cardiac surgery patient: from vascular endothelium to circulatory assist device surface |journal=Circulation |volume=122 |issue=20 |pages=2068–77 |date=November 2010 |pmid=21098468 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.936773 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3487361">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gralnick HR, Rick ME, McKeown LP, Williams SB, Parker RI, Maisonneuve P, Jenneau C, Sultan Y |title=Platelet von Willebrand factor: an important determinant of the bleeding time in type I von Willebrand's disease |journal=Blood |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=58–61 |date=July 1986 |pmid=3487361 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3706933">{{cite journal |vauthors=Suchman AL, Griner PF |title=Diagnostic uses of the activated partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=810–6 |date=June 1986 |pmid=3706933 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3541576">{{cite journal |vauthors=Greenberg CS, Devine DV, McCrae KM |title=Measurement of plasma fibrin D-dimer levels with the use of a monoclonal antibody coupled to latex beads |journal=Am. J. Clin. Pathol. |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=94–100 |date=January 1987 |pmid=3541576 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|[[Glomerulonephritis]]<ref name="pmid2915517">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ellis EN, Mauer SM, Sutherland DE, Steffes MW |title=Glomerular capillary morphology in normal humans |journal=Lab. Invest. |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=231–6 |date=February 1989 |pmid=2915517 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27373970">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dickinson BL |title=Unraveling the immunopathogenesis of glomerular disease |journal=Clin. Immunol. |volume=169 |issue= |pages=89–97 |date=August 2016 |pmid=27373970 |doi=10.1016/j.clim.2016.06.011 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7955787">{{cite journal |vauthors=Trachtman H, Bergwerk A, Gauthier B |title=Isolated proteinuria in children. Natural history and indications for renal biopsy |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila) |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=468–72 |date=August 1994 |pmid=7955787 |doi=10.1177/000992289403300804 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15910953">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chadban SJ, Atkins RC |title=Glomerulonephritis |journal=Lancet |volume=365 |issue=9473 |pages=1797–806 |date=2005 |pmid=15910953 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66583-X |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8361123">{{cite journal |vauthors=Couser WG |title=Pathogenesis of glomerulonephritis |journal=Kidney Int. Suppl. |volume=42 |issue= |pages=S19–26 |date=July 1993 |pmid=8361123 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10620563">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rodriguez-Iturbe B |title=Postinfectious glomerulonephritis |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=XLVI–XLVIII |date=January 2000 |pmid=10620563 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid333598">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanjad S, Tolaymat A, Whitworth J, Levin S |title=Acute glomerulonephritis in children: a review of 153 cases |journal=South. Med. J. |volume=70 |issue=10 |pages=1202–6 |date=October 1977 |pmid=333598 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
Line 524: Line 788:
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|
* [[Pleocytosis]]
* [[Anemia]]
* [[Leukocytosis]]
|
* Elevated [[BUN]] and [[creatinine]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
* Specific gravity > 1.020
* [[Proteinuria]]
* [[Hematuria]]
* [[Red blood cell]] casts
* [[White blood cell]] casts
* Dysmorphic RBCs
* [[Acanthocytes]]
* Cellular casts
* Granular casts
* Oval fat bodies
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* May indicate [[normocytic normochromic anemia]]
* Elevated [[ESR]]
* [[Prothrombin time]], [[activated partial thromboplastin time]] and [[bleeding time]] may be elevated
* Elevated complement C3, C4, CH50
* Streptozyme test to screen for streptococcal antigens
* Blood and tissue culture may aid diagnosis
* Other useful tests include:
** [[Antinuclear antibodies]]
** Anti-DNA antibodies
** [[Cryoglobulin]]s
** Serum [[albumin]]
** [[Triglyceride]] levels
** [[Hepatitis B]] and C serologies
** [[Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody]] ([[ANCA]])
|
|
* [[BUN]] and [[creatinine]] is elevated in severe [[hemorrhage]]
* May determine the following:
** Kidney size
** Echogenicity of the renal cortex
** Obstruction
** Degree of [[fibrosis]]
|
|
*N/A
* To exclude the following:
** [[Granulomatosis with polyangiitis]] (Wegener granulomatosis)
** [[Goodpasture syndrome]]
** Pulmonary congestion
|
|
*N/A
* To exclude the following:
|
** [[Granulomatosis with polyangiitis]] (Wegener granulomatosis)
* [[pH]] may be 7.30-7.35 with mild to severe [[metabolic acidosis]]
** [[Goodpasture syndrome]]
* Serum [[sodium]] and [[chloride]] may become elevated with high volume isotonic saline
** Pulmonary congestion
* [[Hyperchloremia]] may cause a non–ion gap [[acidosis]]
* To visualize visceral abscesses
* [[Hypocalemia]] may occur with rapid [[blood transfusion]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Renal [[biopsy]] may aid diagnosis
|
* Light and electron microscopy may have specific findings and determine pathology
* Sensitive to [[bleeding]] within body cavities
* Immunofluorescence may also exhibit diagnostic findings
* [[Focused assessment with sonography for trauma]] ([[FAST]]) can detect peritoneal cavity fluid
|
* Chest x - ray may demonstrate bilateral opacities in the lung field and indicate [[hemothorax]]
* Abdominal x - ray may demonstrate [[hemoperitoneum]]
* Incomplete calcified margins of a dilated aorta may indicate a ruptured [[abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
* Absence of the psoas shadow may suggest retroperitoneal blood
|
* May visualize intrathoracic, intra-abdominal, and retroperitoneal [[bleeding]]
* However, [[ultrasound]] is more often used
|
*N/A
|
* Esophagogastroduodenoscopy is often used to visualize the source of [[bleeding]] in the upper GI
* [[Colonoscopy]] may be used in the lower GI
* [[Angiography]] and nuclear medicine scanning are also useful in diagnosing the source of [[bleeding]]
|
*N/A
|-
|-
|[[Hemolysis|'''Hemolysis''']]<ref name="pmid3814817">{{cite journal |vauthors=Liesveld JL, Rowe JM, Lichtman MA |title=Variability of the erythropoietic response in autoimmune hemolytic anemia: analysis of 109 cases |journal=Blood |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=820–6 |date=March 1987 |pmid=3814817 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7365971">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marchand A, Galen RS, Van Lente F |title=The predictive value of serum haptoglobin in hemolytic disease |journal=JAMA |volume=243 |issue=19 |pages=1909–11 |date=May 1980 |pmid=7365971 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2436855">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stahl WM |title=Acute phase protein response to tissue injury |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=545–50 |date=June 1987 |pmid=2436855 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7411826">{{cite journal |vauthors=Conley CL, Lippman SM, Ness P |title=Autoimmune hemolytic anemia with reticulocytopenia. A medical emergency |journal=JAMA |volume=244 |issue=15 |pages=1688–90 |date=October 1980 |pmid=7411826 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|[[Goodpasture syndrome]]<ref name="pmid12969182">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pusey CD |title=Anti-glomerular basement membrane disease |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=1535–50 |date=October 2003 |pmid=12969182 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00241.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8914046">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bolton WK |title=Goodpasture's syndrome |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=1753–66 |date=November 1996 |pmid=8914046 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8589284">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kalluri R, Wilson CB, Weber M, Gunwar S, Chonko AM, Neilson EG, Hudson BG |title=Identification of the alpha 3 chain of type IV collagen as the common autoantigen in antibasement membrane disease and Goodpasture syndrome |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=1178–85 |date=October 1995 |pmid=8589284 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12815141">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hudson BG, Tryggvason K, Sundaramoorthy M, Neilson EG |title=Alport's syndrome, Goodpasture's syndrome, and type IV collagen |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=348 |issue=25 |pages=2543–56 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12815141 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra022296 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8621555">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kalluri R, Sun MJ, Hudson BG, Neilson EG |title=The Goodpasture autoantigen. Structural delineation of two immunologically privileged epitopes on alpha3(IV) chain of type IV collagen |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=271 |issue=15 |pages=9062–8 |date=April 1996 |pmid=8621555 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10027929">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leinonen A, Netzer KO, Boutaud A, Gunwar S, Hudson BG |title=Goodpasture antigen: expression of the full-length alpha3(IV) chain of collagen IV and localization of epitopes exclusively to the noncollagenous domain |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=926–35 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10027929 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1755.1999.055003926.x |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
Line 571: Line 854:
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
* Elevated or decreased [[mean corpuscular volume]] and [[mean corpuscular hemoglobin]]
* [[Anemia]]
* [[Thrombocytopenia]]
* [[Leukocytosis]]
* [[Microcytic]] hypochromic [[anemia]]
* [[Macrocytic anemia]]
* Elevated [[red blood cell]] distribution width may indicate [[anisocytosis]]  
* [[Reticulocyte]] count may be increased
|
|
*N/A
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Low-grade [[proteinuria]]
* Gross or [[microscopic hematuria]]
* [[Red blood cell] casts
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Anti– glomerular [[basement membrane]] antibody testing is positive by radioimmunoassays or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays
* [[Antineutrophilic cytoplasmic antibody]] testing is positive for c- or p- ANCA
* Elevated [[ESR]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Bilateral, basal, patchy parenchymal consolidations
|
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* Peripheral [[blood smear]] may demonstrate:
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
** Smudge cells
** Small [[lymphocytes]]
** Polychromasia
** [[Spherocyte]]s
** [[Schistocyte]]s
* Serum [[lactate dehydrogenase]] may be elevated
* Serum [[haptoglobin]] may be decreased
* Unconjugated or indirect [[bilirubin]]  may be elevated
* The following tests may also aid diagnosis:
** Direct antiglobulin test
** [[Urine]] free [[hemoglobin]] test
** [[Urine]] [[hemosiderin]] test
** [[Red blood cell]] survival test
** Cold agglutinin titer
** [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase]] screen
** Sickle cell screen
|
** May visualize [[hepatomegaly]] or [[splenomegal]]y or [[hepatosplenomegaly]]
|
*N/A
|
*N/A
|
*N/A
|
|
*N/A
* Pulmonary [[biopsy]] will demonstrate diffuse [[alveolar hemorrhage]]
|
|
*N/A
|-
|-
|[[Hepatorenal syndrome|'''Hepatorenal syndrome''']]<ref name="pmid19776409">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ginès P, Schrier RW |title=Renal failure in cirrhosis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=361 |issue=13 |pages=1279–90 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19776409 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra0809139 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8550036">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arroyo V, Ginès P, Gerbes AL, Dudley FJ, Gentilini P, Laffi G, Reynolds TB, Ring-Larsen H, Schölmerich J |title=Definition and diagnostic criteria of refractory ascites and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. International Ascites Club |journal=Hepatology |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=164–76 |date=January 1996 |pmid=8550036 |doi=10.1002/hep.510230122 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17389705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Salerno F, Gerbes A, Ginès P, Wong F, Arroyo V |title=Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis |journal=Gut |volume=56 |issue=9 |pages=1310–8 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17389705 |pmc=1954971 |doi=10.1136/gut.2006.107789 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25638527">{{cite journal |vauthors=Angeli P, Ginès P, Wong F, Bernardi M, Boyer TD, Gerbes A, Moreau R, Jalan R, Sarin SK, Piano S, Moore K, Lee SS, Durand F, Salerno F, Caraceni P, Kim WR, Arroyo V, Garcia-Tsao G |title=Diagnosis and management of acute kidney injury in patients with cirrhosis: revised consensus recommendations of the International Club of Ascites |journal=J. Hepatol. |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=968–74 |date=April 2015 |pmid=25638527 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2014.12.029 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Hemolytic uremic syndrome]]<ref name="pmid15728781">{{cite journal |vauthors=Noris M, Remuzzi G |title=Hemolytic uremic syndrome |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=1035–50 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15728781 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2004100861 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27989322">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodship TH, Cook HT, Fakhouri F, Fervenza FC, Frémeaux-Bacchi V, Kavanagh D, Nester CM, Noris M, Pickering MC, Rodríguez de Córdoba S, Roumenina LT, Sethi S, Smith RJ |title=Atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome and C3 glomerulopathy: conclusions from a "Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes" (KDIGO) Controversies Conference |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=539–551 |date=March 2017 |pmid=27989322 |doi=10.1016/j.kint.2016.10.005 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25859752">{{cite journal |vauthors=Loirat C, Fakhouri F, Ariceta G, Besbas N, Bitzan M, Bjerre A, Coppo R, Emma F, Johnson S, Karpman D, Landau D, Langman CB, Lapeyraque AL, Licht C, Nester C, Pecoraro C, Riedl M, van de Kar NC, Van de Walle J, Vivarelli M, Frémeaux-Bacchi V |title=An international consensus approach to the management of atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome in children |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=15–39 |date=January 2016 |pmid=25859752 |doi=10.1007/s00467-015-3076-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16932353">{{cite journal |vauthors=Noris M, Remuzzi G |title=Genetic abnormalities of complement regulators in hemolytic uremic syndrome: how do they affect patient management? |journal=Nat Clin Pract Nephrol |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=2–3 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16932353 |doi=10.1038/ncpneph0018 |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
* [[Leukocytosis]] may indicate [[spontaneous bacterial peritonitis]]  
* Severe [[anemia]]
* [[Thrombocytopenia]]
|
|
* Reduced [[glomerular filtration rate]]  
* Elevated [[BUN]]
* Serum [[creatinine]] > 1.5 mg/dL or 24 - hour [[creatinine]] clearance < 40 mL/min
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* Serum [[sodium]] < 130 mEq/L
* Mild [[proteinuria]]
* [[Red blood cell]]s
* [[Red blood cell]] casts
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* [[Proteinuria]] < 500 mg/d
* Peripheral [[blood smear]] demonstrates [[schistocyte]]s
* Urine volume < 500 mL/d
* Prolonged [[activated partial thromboplastin time]] 
* Urine [[sodium]] < 10 mEq/L
* Elevated [[fibrinogen]] degradation product and [[D-dimer]]
* [[Urine osmolality]] > [[plasma osmolality]]
* Elevated [[bilirubin]]
* Urine [[red blood cell]] count < 50 per high-power field
* Elevated [[lactate dehydrogenase]]
* Decreased [[haptoglobin]]
* Stool culture may be postive for [[E coli]] 0157:H7 or [[shigella]]  
* ADAMTS-13 activity is severely decreased 
|
|
*N/A
* Helpful in ruling out obstruction
|
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* Prolonged [[prothrombin time]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* [[Alpha fetoprotein|Alpha feto-protein]] may be positive
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* [[Cryoglobulinemia]] may be seen
|
* Abdominal ultrasound used to exclude [[hydronephrosis]] and intrinsic renal disease
|
*N/A
|
*N/A
|
*N/A
|
|
* [[Echocardiography]] is used to evaluate right ventricular preload, ventricular filling pressures, and cardiac function
* Renal [[biopsy]] may demonstrate the following:
** Diffuse thickening of the glomerular capillary wall
** Swelling of endothelial cells
** Fibrin [[thrombi]]  
|
|
*N/A
|-
|-
|[[Cardiomyopathy|'''Ischemic cardiomyopathy''']]<ref name="pmid16567565">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maron BJ, Towbin JA, Thiene G, Antzelevitch C, Corrado D, Arnett D, Moss AJ, Seidman CE, Young JB |title=Contemporary definitions and classification of the cardiomyopathies: an American Heart Association Scientific Statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Heart Failure and Transplantation Committee; Quality of Care and Outcomes Research and Functional Genomics and Translational Biology Interdisciplinary Working Groups; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention |journal=Circulation |volume=113 |issue=14 |pages=1807–16 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16567565 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.174287 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15689345">{{cite journal |vauthors=Corrado D, Pelliccia A, Bjørnstad HH, Vanhees L, Biffi A, Borjesson M, Panhuyzen-Goedkoop N, Deligiannis A, Solberg E, Dugmore D, Mellwig KP, Assanelli D, Delise P, van-Buuren F, Anastasakis A, Heidbuchel H, Hoffmann E, Fagard R, Priori SG, Basso C, Arbustini E, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, McKenna WJ, Thiene G |title=Cardiovascular pre-participation screening of young competitive athletes for prevention of sudden death: proposal for a common European protocol. Consensus Statement of the Study Group of Sport Cardiology of the Working Group of Cardiac Rehabilitation and Exercise Physiology and the Working Group of Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology |journal=Eur. Heart J. |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=516–24 |date=March 2005 |pmid=15689345 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehi108 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17916581">{{cite journal |vauthors=Elliott P, Andersson B, Arbustini E, Bilinska Z, Cecchi F, Charron P, Dubourg O, Kühl U, Maisch B, McKenna WJ, Monserrat L, Pankuweit S, Rapezzi C, Seferovic P, Tavazzi L, Keren A |title=Classification of the cardiomyopathies: a position statement from the European Society Of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases |journal=Eur. Heart J. |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=270–6 |date=January 2008 |pmid=17916581 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehm342 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17468391">{{cite journal |vauthors=Thompson PD, Franklin BA, Balady GJ, Blair SN, Corrado D, Estes NA, Fulton JE, Gordon NF, Haskell WL, Link MS, Maron BJ, Mittleman MA, Pelliccia A, Wenger NK, Willich SN, Costa F |title=Exercise and acute cardiovascular events placing the risks into perspective: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism and the Council on Clinical Cardiology |journal=Circulation |volume=115 |issue=17 |pages=2358–68 |date=May 2007 |pmid=17468391 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.181485 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Nephrolithiasis]]<ref name="pmid23283137">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fwu CW, Eggers PW, Kimmel PL, Kusek JW, Kirkali Z |title=Emergency department visits, use of imaging, and drugs for urolithiasis have increased in the United States |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=479–86 |date=March 2013 |pmid=23283137 |pmc=3587650 |doi=10.1038/ki.2012.419 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26349951">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh P, Enders FT, Vaughan LE, Bergstralh EJ, Knoedler JJ, Krambeck AE, Lieske JC, Rule AD |title=Stone Composition Among First-Time Symptomatic Kidney Stone Formers in the Community |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=90 |issue=10 |pages=1356–65 |date=October 2015 |pmid=26349951 |pmc=4593754 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.07.016 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14960744">{{cite journal |vauthors=Teichman JM |title=Clinical practice. Acute renal colic from ureteral calculus |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=350 |issue=7 |pages=684–93 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14960744 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp030813 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7862980">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith RC, Rosenfield AT, Choe KA, Essenmacher KR, Verga M, Glickman MG, Lange RC |title=Acute flank pain: comparison of non-contrast-enhanced CT and intravenous urography |journal=Radiology |volume=194 |issue=3 |pages=789–94 |date=March 1995 |pmid=7862980 |doi=10.1148/radiology.194.3.7862980 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11743350">{{cite journal |vauthors=Williams JC, Paterson RF, Kopecky KK, Lingeman JE, McAteer JA |title=High resolution detection of internal structure of renal calculi by helical computerized tomography |journal=J. Urol. |volume=167 |issue=1 |pages=322–6 |date=January 2002 |pmid=11743350 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14744345">{{cite journal |vauthors=Oehlschläger S, Hakenberg OW, Froehner M, Manseck A, Wirth MP |title=Evaluation of chemical composition of urinary calculi by conventional radiography |journal=J. Endourol. |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=841–5 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14744345 |doi=10.1089/089277903772036109 |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
* In high [[cardiac output]], [[anemia]] may be detected
* Mild [[leukocytosis]]
|
|
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[BUN]]
|
|
* Serum [[sodium]] may be decreased
* [[Hypercalcemia]]
* Serum [[postassium]] may be chronically low
* Hyper or [[hyponatremia]]
* Serum [[magnesium]] may be decreased
* Hyper or [[hypokalemia]]
* [[Hyperuricemia]]
|
|
*N/A
* Gross or [[microscopic hematuria]]
* [[Red blood cell]]s or [[white blood cell]]s
* [[Pyuria]]
* Urinary crystals of [[calcium oxalate]], [[uric acid]], or [[cystine]]
* [[Hypercalciuria]]
* Urinary pH > 7  may indicate an infection with urea-splitting bacteria such as:
** [[Proteus]]
** [[Pseudomonas]]
** [[Klebsiella]], and may lead to struvite stones
* Urinary pH < 5 indicates likely formation of [[uric acid]] stones
|
|
*N/A
* Decreased serum [[bicarbonate]] with [[hypokalemia]] may indicate [[renal tubular acidosis]]
|
|
* [[Cardiac enzyme]]s may be elevated indicating a recent [[myocardial infarction]], and include:
* Elevated [[CRP]]
** [[Troponin]]
** [[Creatine kinase]]
** [[Creatine kinase]] - MB
* B-type natriuretic peptide level reflects volume status
|
|
*N/A
* All types of stones are visible
* May demonstrate the following:
** [[Hydronephrosis]]
** Ureteral dilation
** [[Abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
** [[Cholelithiasis]]
* Safe in pregnancy but may miss small stones
|
|
* May detect abnormal cardiac silhouette
* [[Calcium]] - containing stones are radio-opaque
* [[Uric acid]] or [[cystine]] stones are radiolucent
* Plain or KUB (kidney-ureter-bladder) radiograph may determine stone characteristics such as:
** Size
** Shape
** Composition
** Location
** Differentiate between a phlebolith and an obstructing calcific stone
* Stone movement may also be monitored
|
|
* CT with [[angiography]] can detect the following:
* Most sensitive modality for renal stones
** Biventricular volume
* Can estimate stone density, size and composition
** [[Ejection fraction]]
* CT is able to determine pathology secondary to renal stones, such as:
** Wall motion
**  Ureteral dilation
** Myocardial perfusion
** [[Hydronephrosis]]
** [[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]]
** Nephromegaly
** Left ventricular noncompaction
** Perinephric fat streaking
** Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia
* No contrast needed and can diagnose other pathologies, such as:
** Congenital malformation
** [[Abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
** [[Appendicitis]]
** [[Pancreatitis]]
** [[Cholecystitis]]  
** Ovarian disorders
** [[Diverticular disease]]
** [[Renal cell carcinoma]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* MRI with gadolinium–diethylene-triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) can evaluate mid-wall fibrosis
* Intravenous pyelography (IVP) visualizes entire urinary system and is gold standard for the diagnosis of ureterolithiasis
* Renal tomography can determine similar findings as CT, however has been largely replaced by CT
* Nuclear renal scan can determine renal function
|
|
* Echocardiography is the gold standard in diagnosis and indicates an [[ejection fraction]] ≤35%
* Echo may also diagnose [[pulmonary embolism]], right ventricular dilation or [[pericardial effusion]] with tamponade
* Electrocardiogram is useful in detecting;
** Left ventricular enlargement
** [[Atrial fibrillation]]
** Premature ventricular complexes
** Left ventricular [[hypertrophy]]
** Left bundle-branch block
** [[Atrioventricular block]]
* Right-sided heart catheterization can determine volume status
* Endomyocardial biopsy may also be helpful in diagnosis
|
*N/A
|-
|-
|[[ Liver cirrhosis| '''Liver cirrhosis''']]<ref name="pmid24076364">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ge PS, Runyon BA |title=The changing role of beta-blocker therapy in patients with cirrhosis |journal=J. Hepatol. |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=643–53 |date=March 2014 |pmid=24076364 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2013.09.016 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3533689">{{cite journal |vauthors=Becker CD, Scheidegger J, Marincek B |title=Hepatic vein occlusion: morphologic features on computed tomography and ultrasonography |journal=Gastrointest Radiol |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=305–11 |date=1986 |pmid=3533689 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3532188">{{cite journal |vauthors=Giorgio A, Amoroso P, Lettieri G, Fico P, de Stefano G, Finelli L, Scala V, Tarantino L, Pierri P, Pesce G |title=Cirrhosis: value of caudate to right lobe ratio in diagnosis with US |journal=Radiology |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=443–5 |date=November 1986 |pmid=3532188 |doi=10.1148/radiology.161.2.3532188 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Nephrotic syndrome]]<ref name="pmid1996578">{{cite journal |vauthors=Praga M, Borstein B, Andres A, Arenas J, Oliet A, Montoyo C, Ruilope LM, Rodicio JL |title=Nephrotic proteinuria without hypoalbuminemia: clinical characteristics and response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=330–8 |date=March 1991 |pmid=1996578 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9370176">{{cite journal |vauthors=Haas M, Meehan SM, Karrison TG, Spargo BH |title=Changing etiologies of unexplained adult nephrotic syndrome: a comparison of renal biopsy findings from 1976-1979 and 1995-1997 |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=621–31 |date=November 1997 |pmid=9370176 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16968733">{{cite journal |vauthors=Malafronte P, Mastroianni-Kirsztajn G, Betônico GN, Romão JE, Alves MA, Carvalho MF, Viera Neto OM, Cadaval RA, Bérgamo RR, Woronik V, Sens YA, Marrocos MS, Barros RT |title=Paulista Registry of glomerulonephritis: 5-year data report |journal=Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=3098–105 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16968733 |doi=10.1093/ndt/gfl237 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20947631">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hausmann R, Kuppe C, Egger H, Schweda F, Knecht V, Elger M, Menzel S, Somers D, Braun G, Fuss A, Uhlig S, Kriz W, Tanner G, Floege J, Moeller MJ |title=Electrical forces determine glomerular permeability |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=2053–8 |date=December 2010 |pmid=20947631 |pmc=3014018 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2010030303 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15146236">{{cite journal |vauthors=Reiser J, von Gersdorff G, Loos M, Oh J, Asanuma K, Giardino L, Rastaldi MP, Calvaresi N, Watanabe H, Schwarz K, Faul C, Kretzler M, Davidson A, Sugimoto H, Kalluri R, Sharpe AH, Kreidberg JA, Mundel P |title=Induction of B7-1 in podocytes is associated with nephrotic syndrome |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=113 |issue=10 |pages=1390–7 |date=May 2004 |pmid=15146236 |pmc=406528 |doi=10.1172/JCI20402 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21110043">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gbadegesin R, Lavin P, Foreman J, Winn M |title=Pathogenesis and therapy of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: an update |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1001–15 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21110043 |pmc=3624015 |doi=10.1007/s00467-010-1692-x |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Serum [[creatinine]] is normal in uncomplicated [[nephrotic syndrome]]
* Serum [[albumin]] is decreased
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* [[Proteinuria]] > 3.5g/day
* The following may or may not be present
** [[Waxy casts]]
** [[Oval fat bodies]]
** [[Fatty casts]]
** Granular casts
** [[Microhematuria]]
** Dysmorphic RBCs
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Genetic screening for NPHS1 and NPHS2 mutations
* Renal [[biopsy]] aids diagnosis
* Other useful tests:
** [[Hepatitis B]] and C
** [[HIV]]
** [[Syphilis]]
** [[Antinuclear antibody]]
** Anti–double stranded DNA antibodies
** Complement
* Absence of phospholipase A2 receptor may indicate secondary [[nephrotic syndrome]]
|
|
*N/A
* Ultrasound scanning may demonstrate focal glomerulosclerosis
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|-
|[[Thrombosis]]<ref name="pmid17606842">{{cite journal |vauthors=Scolari F, Ravani P, Gaggi R, Santostefano M, Rollino C, Stabellini N, Colla L, Viola BF, Maiorca P, Venturelli C, Bonardelli S, Faggiano P, Barrett BJ |title=The challenge of diagnosing atheroembolic renal disease: clinical features and prognostic factors |journal=Circulation |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=298–304 |date=July 2007 |pmid=17606842 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.680991 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12761259">{{cite journal |vauthors=Scolari F, Ravani P, Pola A, Guerini S, Zubani R, Movilli E, Savoldi S, Malberti F, Maiorca R |title=Predictors of renal and patient outcomes in atheroembolic renal disease: a prospective study |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1584–90 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12761259 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3906225">{{cite journal |vauthors=Llach F |title=Hypercoagulability, renal vein thrombosis, and other thrombotic complications of nephrotic syndrome |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=429–39 |date=September 1985 |pmid=3906225 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7967339">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rabelink TJ, Zwaginga JJ, Koomans HA, Sixma JJ |title=Thrombosis and hemostasis in renal disease |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=287–96 |date=August 1994 |pmid=7967339 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15524054">{{cite journal |vauthors=Crew RJ, Radhakrishnan J, Appel G |title=Complications of the nephrotic syndrome and their treatment |journal=Clin. Nephrol. |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=245–59 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15524054 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15990160">{{cite journal |vauthors=Singhal R, Brimble KS |title=Thromboembolic complications in the nephrotic syndrome: pathophysiology and clinical management |journal=Thromb. Res. |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=397–407 |date=2006 |pmid=15990160 |doi=10.1016/j.thromres.2005.03.030 |url=}}</ref>
 
- [[Renal vein]]
 
- [[Renal artery]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
*N/A
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[BUN]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* Liver function testing is crucial for diagnosis
* [[Hypercholesterolemia]]
* The following serologic tests are used as indirect markers of [[fibrosis]]:
* [[Hypoalbuminemia]]
** [[Aspartate aminotransferase]] to [[platelet]] ratio
* Complementemia
** FibroTest/FibroSure
** Hepascore
** FibroSpect
|
|
* Doppler ultrasound may demonstrate:
* Ultrasound may demonstrate the following:
** Portal blood flow and flow velocity
** Echo-poor medullary pyramids
** [[Hepatic artery]] enlargement
** Vascular resistance
** Multifocal or focal lesions or masses
** Hepatic contour
** Hepatic texture
** Portal collaterals
** [[Ascites]]
** [[Splenomegaly]]
** [[Portal vein thrombosis]]
|
|
* May demonstrate  the following:
* Visualizes the [[renal vein]]s and is the modality of choice
** [[Ascites]]
** [[Bowel perforation]]
** [[Gynecomastia]] (enlargement of breast tissue)
** [[Azygos vein]] enlargement 
** Variceal hemorrhage
** [[Pleural effusion]]
|
|
* CT can detect the following:
* Visualizes blood flow, vessel walls, and adjacent tissues
** Morphologic changes in the liver
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
** Collaterals and shunts
** Lesions
** Hyperattenuating nodule of [[hepatocellular carcinoma]]
** [[Portal vein thrombosis]]
** [[Splenomegaly]] and gallbladder enlargement
|
* MRI can detect the following:
** Morphologic changes in the liver
** Vacular patency
** Lesions
** Tumor invasion
** [[Portal vein thrombosis]]
** [[Splenomegaly]] and gallbladder enlargement
** [[Steatosis]]
|
|
* Nuclear imaging can determine hepatic function and [[portal hypertension]]
* Renal [[biopsy]], inferior vena cavography, and renal arteriography may aid diagnosis
* [[Angiography]] can determine hepatic perfusion and the development of [[shunt]]s and [[tumor]]s
* IVP may reveal an enlarged kidney
|
|
* [[Liver cirrhosis]] is irreversible and a transplant is usually needed
|-
|-
|[[Malignant hypertension|'''Malignant hypertension''']]<ref name="pmid23102030">{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson W, Nguyen ML, Patel R |title=Hypertension crisis in the emergency department |journal=Cardiol Clin |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=533–43 |date=November 2012 |pmid=23102030 |doi=10.1016/j.ccl.2012.07.011 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16627047">{{cite journal |vauthors=Elliott WJ |title=Clinical features in the management of selected hypertensive emergencies |journal=Prog Cardiovasc Dis |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=316–25 |date=2006 |pmid=16627047 |doi=10.1016/j.pcad.2006.02.004 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Transplant rejection]]<ref name="pmid28052609">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hart A, Smith JM, Skeans MA, Gustafson SK, Stewart DE, Cherikh WS, Wainright JL, Kucheryavaya A, Woodbury M, Snyder JJ, Kasiske BL, Israni AK |title=OPTN/SRTR 2015 Annual Data Report: Kidney |journal=Am. J. Transplant. |volume=17 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=21–116 |date=January 2017 |pmid=28052609 |pmc=5527691 |doi=10.1111/ajt.14124 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18337655">{{cite journal |vauthors=Opelz G, Döhler B |title=Influence of time of rejection on long-term graft survival in renal transplantation |journal=Transplantation |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=661–6 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18337655 |doi=10.1097/TP.0b013e3181661695 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11052270">{{cite journal |vauthors=Madden RL, Mulhern JG, Benedetto BJ, O'Shea MH, Germain MJ, Braden GL, O'Shaughnessy J, Lipkowitz GS |title=Completely reversed acute rejection is not a significant risk factor for the development of chronic rejection in renal allograft recipients |journal=Transpl. Int. |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=344–50 |date=2000 |pmid=11052270 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9210497">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vereerstraeten P, Abramowicz D, de Pauw L, Kinnaert P |title=Absence of deleterious effect on long-term kidney graft survival of rejection episodes with complete functional recovery |journal=Transplantation |volume=63 |issue=12 |pages=1739–43 |date=June 1997 |pmid=9210497 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21511091">{{cite journal |vauthors=Martinu T, Pavlisko EN, Chen DF, Palmer SM |title=Acute allograft rejection: cellular and humoral processes |journal=Clin. Chest Med. |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=295–310 |date=June 2011 |pmid=21511091 |pmc=3089893 |doi=10.1016/j.ccm.2011.02.008 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26454740">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yusen RD, Edwards LB, Kucheryavaya AY, Benden C, Dipchand AI, Goldfarb SB, Levvey BJ, Lund LH, Meiser B, Rossano JW, Stehlik J |title=The Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: Thirty-second Official Adult Lung and Heart-Lung Transplantation Report--2015; Focus Theme: Early Graft Failure |journal=J. Heart Lung Transplant. |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1264–77 |date=October 2015 |pmid=26454740 |doi=10.1016/j.healun.2015.08.014 |url=}}</ref>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+/-</nowiki>
|
|
* May demonstrate [[microangiopathic hemolytic anemia]]
* [[Lymphcytosis]] may be present
* [[Eosinophilia]] may occur
|
|
* Elevated [[BUN]]  
* Acute elevation in serum [[creatinine]]
* Elevated [[creatinine]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
* [[Azotemia]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* [[Hypernatremia]]
* [[Proteinuria]] > 1g/day
* [[Hyperphosphatemia]]
* [[Pyuria]] may be present
* [[Hyperkalemia]] or [[hypokalemia]]
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|  
* [[Proteinuria]]
* [[Microscopic hematuria]]
* [[Red blood cell]] or [[hyaline cast]]s
|
|
* [[Acidosis]]
* Plasma levels of donor-derived cell-free DNA is elevated > 1% and is released from the dead cells of the graft
* Positive detection of complement split product C4d
* Elevated endothelial activation and injury transcripts 
|
|
* It is useful to also test the following:
* May demonstrate the following
** [[Cardiac enzymes]]
** Increased graft (kidney) size
** Urinary [[catecholamines]] and vanillylmandelic acid
** Loss of corticomedullary boundary
** Thyroid-stimulating hormone level
** Hypoechoic pyramids
* Elevated plasma [[renin]], [[angiotensin]] II, and [[aldosterone]] is often detected
** Decreased echogenicity of renal sinuses
* May also demonstrate other pathologies:
** Ureteral obstruction
** [[Acute tubular necrosis]]  
** Renal vein occlusion
** [[Pyelonephritis]]
** [[Cyclosporine]] toxicity
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|
* May demonstrate the following:
* Acute antibody-mediated rejection will demonstrate the following on histology:
** Cardiac enlargement
** Patchy mononuclear cell infiltrates
** [[Pulmonary edema]]
** Swollen endothelium
** Rib notching
** [[Fibrinoid necrosis]]
** [[Aortic coarctation]]
** Presence of fibrin [[thrombi]]
** Mediastinal widening
** Cortical [[necrosis]]
** [[Aortic dissection]]
|
|
*N/A
* [[Chronic rejection]] does not usually manifest with [[oliguria]] and/or [[anuria]]
|
|-
*N/A
|
* Electrocardiography may indicate the following:
** [[Ischemia]]
** Infarct
** Evidence of electrolyte abnormalities or drug overdose
* Echocardiography may indicate the following:
** Left atrial enlargement
** Left ventricular [[hypertrophy]]
|
*N/A
|}
|}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}

Revision as of 17:17, 3 May 2018


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Anmol Pitliya, M.B.B.S. M.D.[2]

Differential Oliguria

Classification by etiology Etiology Clinical manifestations Paraclinical findings Comments
Symptoms and signs Lab findings Imaging
Fatigue/Lethargy Thirst Dizziness/Confusion Muscle weakness/cramp Somatic/visceral pain Vomiting Diarrhea Tachypnea Haematuria/Proteinuria Edema Blood tests Renal Funtion test Electrolytes Urine analysis ABG Other Ultrasound X-ray CT MRI Other
Prerenal
Myocarditis[1][2][3][4] +/- - - - +/- - - +/- - - - - - - - - -
  • Endomyocardial biopsy is the gold standard for the diagnosis of myocarditis
  • Echocardiography is useful for the following:
    • Exclusion of amyloidosis, congenital and/or valvular diseases
    • Assessment of cardiac dysfunction
    • Detection of inflammatory origin, wall motion abnormalities, wall thickening, and pericardial effusion
    • Distinction between fulminant and acute myocarditis
  • Scintigraphy is useful for detecting myocardial inflammation
  • ECG is non-specific but may detect the following:
Peritonitis[5][6] +/- - +/- - +/- +/- +/- - - - - - - - -
  • Peritoneal fluid analysis is the most important component of diagnosis and demonstrates the following:
- - - - -
Perinatal asphyxia[7][8][9] +/- - +/- - - +/- - +/- - - - -
  • Elevated cardiac troponin T and I levels are specific for cardiac dysfunction
  • Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin is under investigation as a biomarker for acute kidney injury
  • Fetal umbilical artery pH <7.0
  • Elevated liver transaminases
  • Coagulation profile should be carried out
 - -
  • Acute brain injury may be seen on MRI
  • ECG may demonstrate ischemia with changes in the ST segment
  • Echocardiography may demonstrate the following:
Polycythemia[10][11][12][13][14] +/- - - - - - - +/- - - -
  • Oxygen saturation ≥ 92%
 - - - -
Respiratory distress syndrome[15][16][17][18] + - +/- - - - - + - - - - - -
  • Pulse oximetry is useful in diagnosis
 -
  • Demonstrates the following:
    • Bilateral, diffuse, reticular granular or ground-glass appearance
    • Poor lung expansion
    • Cardiomegaly may or may not be present
    • Streaky opacities may indicate pneumonia
 - -
Shock[19][20][21][22]

- Anaphylactic

- Cardiogenic

- Hypotensive

- Septic

- Toxic

+/- +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- - +/- +/- - - - -
Third space losses[23][24][25]

- Capillary leak

- Surgery

- Trauma

+/- +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- - +/- +/- -
  • May visualize fluid collections
  • More accurately visualize the following:
    • Margins of trauma
    • Fluid collection
  • Useful for diagnosis of soft tissue injury
 - - -
Toxic megacolon[26][27][28][29] +/- +/- +/- - + + +/- - - - -
  • Ultrasound may demonstrate the following:
    • Loss of haustra
    • Hypoechoic and thick bowel walls
    • Dilated colon > 6cm
    • Dilatation of ileal loops
    • Presence of intraluminal gas and fluid
  • The following is noted with x-ray:
  • Dilated colon
  • Loss of haustra
  • Soft tissue masses
  • Segmental parietal thinning
  • Free intraperitoneal air
  • May demonstrate the following:
- -
Classification by etiology Etiology Clinical manifestations Paraclinical findings Comments
Symptoms and signs Lab findings Imaging
Fatigue/Lethargy Thirst Dizziness/Confusion Muscle weakness/cramp Somatic/visceral pain Vomiting Diarrhea Tachypnea Haematuria/Proteinuria Edema CBC KFT Electrolytes Urine analysis ABG Other Ultrasound X-ray CT MRI Other
Intrinsic renal Acute interstitial nephritis[30][31][32][33] +/- - +/- - +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- - -
  • Patients with immunoglobulin G4 - related disease may have elevated serum total IgG and/or IgG4 levels
 - - - -
Acute tubular necrosis[34][35][36][37][38] +/- - - - - +/- - - +/- +/-
  • Pigmented, muddy brown, granular casts
 - -
  • May be useful in cases with nephrolithiasis
  • May also determine area of obstruction
  • May also determine area of obstruction
  • Renal biopsy may demonstrate the following:
    • Loss of tubular cells or the denuded tubules
    • Swollen tubular cells
    • Loss of the cell brush border
  • Useful kidney function biomarkers:
    • Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin
    • Interleukin-18
    • Kidney injury molecule 1
    • Cystatin C
    • Sodium/hydrogen exchanger isoform 3
Cancer[39][40][41][42][43]

- Renal cell carcinoma

- Metastatic cancer

+ - - - +/- +/- - - + +/- -
  • Ultrasound can detect fluid collection and morphologic change
  • Flank mass
  • May determine soft tissue invasion and staging
  • Percutaneous cyst puncture may aid diagnosis of malignant cystic lesions
  • Histology can determine type of cancer
  • Renal cell carcinoma can be divided into the following types:
    • Clear cell (75%)
    • Chromophilic (15%)
    • Chromophobic (5%)
    • Oncocytoma (3%)
    • Collecting duct (2%)
Chronic kidney failure[44][45][46][47][48][49] + - - - +/- - - - + +
  • May demonstrate nephrolithiasis
  • Retrograde pyelogram may determine obstruction
  • May determine renal masses, stones, and cysts
  • Percutaneous renal biopsy is also useful in diagnosis
Congenital kidney disease[50][51][52][53][54]

- Agenesis

- Dysplasia

- Hypoplasia

- Polycystic

+/- - - - +/- +/- - - +/- +/-
  • Decreased GFR
 -
  • Genetic testing for ADPKD1 and ADPKD2
  • Ultrasound is the gold standard for visualization of cysts
  • More sensitive than ultrasound and can detect small cysts (0.5 cm)
  • Useful for determining kidney size and progression
  • Magnetic resonance angiography may determine intracranial aneurysms
 - -
End stage renal disease[44][45][46][47][48][49] + - - - +/- - - - + +
  • May demonstrate nephrolithiasis
  • Retrograde pyelogram may determine obstruction
  • May determine renal masses, stones, and cysts
  • Useful in those who are contraindicated for intravenous contrast
  • May determine renal vein thrombosis
  • Magnetic resonance angiography can diagnose [[[renal artery stenosis]]
  • Percutaneous renal biopsy is also useful in diagnosis
Endogenous toxins[55][56][57][58][59]

- Hemoglobin

- Myoglobin

- Uric acid

+/- - +/- + - +/- - - +/- +/- - - -
  • Voiding cystourethrograms may detect ureter or bladder abnormalities
  • Radionuclide studies may visualize calculi
Glomerulonephritis[60][61][62][63][64][65][66] +/- - - - - - - - + + - - -
  • May determine the following:
    • Kidney size
    • Echogenicity of the renal cortex
    • Obstruction
    • Degree of fibrosis
 -
  • Renal biopsy may aid diagnosis
  • Light and electron microscopy may have specific findings and determine pathology
  • Immunofluorescence may also exhibit diagnostic findings
Goodpasture syndrome[67][68][69][70][71][72] +/- - - - - - - +/- +/- +/- - - -
  • Bilateral, basal, patchy parenchymal consolidations
 - -
Hemolytic uremic syndrome[73][74][75][76] +/- - +/- +/- +/- + + - +/- +/- - -
  • Helpful in ruling out obstruction
 - - -
  • Renal biopsy may demonstrate the following:
    • Diffuse thickening of the glomerular capillary wall
    • Swelling of endothelial cells
    • Fibrin thrombi
Nephrolithiasis[77][78][79][80][81][82] - - - - +/- +/- - - - -
  • Calcium - containing stones are radio-opaque
  • Uric acid or cystine stones are radiolucent
  • Plain or KUB (kidney-ureter-bladder) radiograph may determine stone characteristics such as:
    • Size
    • Shape
    • Composition
    • Location
    • Differentiate between a phlebolith and an obstructing calcific stone
  • Stone movement may also be monitored
 -
  • Intravenous pyelography (IVP) visualizes entire urinary system and is gold standard for the diagnosis of ureterolithiasis
  • Renal tomography can determine similar findings as CT, however has been largely replaced by CT
  • Nuclear renal scan can determine renal function
Nephrotic syndrome[83][84][85][86][87][88] +/- - - - - +/- - - + +/- - - -
  • Ultrasound scanning may demonstrate focal glomerulosclerosis
 - - - - -
Thrombosis[89][90][91][92][93][94]

- Renal vein

- Renal artery

- - - - +/- + - - + +/- - - - -
  • Ultrasound may demonstrate the following:
    • Echo-poor medullary pyramids
  • Visualizes the renal veins and is the modality of choice
  • Visualizes blood flow, vessel walls, and adjacent tissues
 -
  • Renal biopsy, inferior vena cavography, and renal arteriography may aid diagnosis
  • IVP may reveal an enlarged kidney
Transplant rejection[95][96][97][98][99][100] +/- - - - + +/- - - +/- +/- - - -
  • Plasma levels of donor-derived cell-free DNA is elevated > 1% and is released from the dead cells of the graft
  • Positive detection of complement split product C4d
  • Elevated endothelial activation and injury transcripts
  • May demonstrate the following
    • Increased graft (kidney) size
    • Loss of corticomedullary boundary
    • Hypoechoic pyramids
    • Decreased echogenicity of renal sinuses
  • May also demonstrate other pathologies:
- -
  • Acute antibody-mediated rejection will demonstrate the following on histology:

References

  1. ↑ Dec GW, Palacios IF, Fallon JT, Aretz HT, Mills J, Lee DC, Johnson RA (April 1985). "Active myocarditis in the spectrum of acute dilated cardiomyopathies. Clinical features, histologic correlates, and clinical outcome". N. Engl. J. Med. 312 (14): 885–90. doi:10.1056/NEJM198504043121404. PMID 3974674.
  2. ↑ O'Connell JB, Mason JW (April 1989). "Diagnosing and treating active myocarditis". West. J. Med. 150 (4): 431–5. PMC 1026578. PMID 2660415.
  3. ↑ Olinde KD, O'Connell JB (1994). "Inflammatory heart disease: pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of myocarditis". Annu. Rev. Med. 45: 481–90. doi:10.1146/annurev.med.45.1.481. PMID 8198397.
  4. ↑ Baughman KL (January 2006). "Diagnosis of myocarditis: death of Dallas criteria". Circulation. 113 (4): 593–5. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.589663. PMID 16449736.
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