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* Nuclear renal scan can determine renal function
* Nuclear renal scan can determine renal function
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|[[Nephrotic syndrome]]<ref name="pmid1996578">{{cite journal |vauthors=Praga M, Borstein B, Andres A, Arenas J, Oliet A, Montoyo C, Ruilope LM, Rodicio JL |title=Nephrotic proteinuria without hypoalbuminemia: clinical characteristics and response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=330–8 |date=March 1991 |pmid=1996578 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9370176">{{cite journal |vauthors=Haas M, Meehan SM, Karrison TG, Spargo BH |title=Changing etiologies of unexplained adult nephrotic syndrome: a comparison of renal biopsy findings from 1976-1979 and 1995-1997 |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=621–31 |date=November 1997 |pmid=9370176 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16968733">{{cite journal |vauthors=Malafronte P, Mastroianni-Kirsztajn G, Betônico GN, Romão JE, Alves MA, Carvalho MF, Viera Neto OM, Cadaval RA, Bérgamo RR, Woronik V, Sens YA, Marrocos MS, Barros RT |title=Paulista Registry of glomerulonephritis: 5-year data report |journal=Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=3098–105 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16968733 |doi=10.1093/ndt/gfl237 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20947631">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hausmann R, Kuppe C, Egger H, Schweda F, Knecht V, Elger M, Menzel S, Somers D, Braun G, Fuss A, Uhlig S, Kriz W, Tanner G, Floege J, Moeller MJ |title=Electrical forces determine glomerular permeability |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=2053–8 |date=December 2010 |pmid=20947631 |pmc=3014018 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2010030303 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15146236">{{cite journal |vauthors=Reiser J, von Gersdorff G, Loos M, Oh J, Asanuma K, Giardino L, Rastaldi MP, Calvaresi N, Watanabe H, Schwarz K, Faul C, Kretzler M, Davidson A, Sugimoto H, Kalluri R, Sharpe AH, Kreidberg JA, Mundel P |title=Induction of B7-1 in podocytes is associated with nephrotic syndrome |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=113 |issue=10 |pages=1390–7 |date=May 2004 |pmid=15146236 |pmc=406528 |doi=10.1172/JCI20402 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21110043">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gbadegesin R, Lavin P, Foreman J, Winn M |title=Pathogenesis and therapy of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: an update |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1001–15 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21110043 |pmc=3624015 |doi=10.1007/s00467-010-1692-x |url=}}</ref>
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* Serum [[creatinine]] is normal in uncomplicated [[nephrotic syndrome]]
* Serum [[albumin]] is decreased
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* [[Proteinuria]] > 3.5g/day
* The following may or may not be present
** [[Waxy casts]]
** [[Oval fat bodies]]
** [[Fatty casts]]
** Granular casts
** [[Microhematuria]]
** Dysmorphic RBCs
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* Genetic screening for NPHS1 and NPHS2 mutations
* Renal [[biopsy]] aids diagnosis
* Other useful tests:
** [[Hepatitis B]] and C
** [[HIV]]
** [[Syphilis]]
** [[Antinuclear antibody]]
** Anti–double stranded DNA antibodies
** Complement
* Absence of phospholipase A2 receptor may indicate secondary [[nephrotic syndrome]]
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* Ultrasound scanning may demonstrate focal glomerulosclerosis
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Revision as of 17:33, 3 May 2018


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Anmol Pitliya, M.B.B.S. M.D.[2]

Differential Oliguria

Classification by etiology Etiology Clinical manifestations Paraclinical findings Comments
Symptoms and signs Lab findings Imaging
Fatigue/Lethargy Thirst Dizziness/Confusion Muscle weakness/cramp Somatic/visceral pain Vomiting Diarrhea Tachypnea Haematuria/Proteinuria Edema Blood tests Renal Funtion test Electrolytes Urine analysis ABG Other Ultrasound X-ray CT MRI Other
Prerenal Myocarditis[1][2][3][4] +/- - - - +/- - - +/- - - - - - - - - -
  • Endomyocardial biopsy is the gold standard for the diagnosis of myocarditis
  • Echocardiography is useful for the following:
    • Exclusion of amyloidosis, congenital and/or valvular diseases
    • Assessment of cardiac dysfunction
    • Detection of inflammatory origin, wall motion abnormalities, wall thickening, and pericardial effusion
    • Distinction between fulminant and acute myocarditis
  • Scintigraphy is useful for detecting myocardial inflammation
  • ECG is non-specific but may detect the following:
Peritonitis[5][6] +/- - +/- - +/- +/- +/- - - - - - - - -
  • Peritoneal fluid analysis is the most important component of diagnosis and demonstrates the following:
- - - - -
Perinatal asphyxia[7][8][9] +/- - +/- - - +/- - +/- - - - -
  • Elevated cardiac troponin T and I levels are specific for cardiac dysfunction
  • Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin is under investigation as a biomarker for acute kidney injury
  • Fetal umbilical artery pH <7.0
  • Elevated liver transaminases
  • Coagulation profile should be carried out
 - -
  • Acute brain injury may be seen on MRI
  • ECG may demonstrate ischemia with changes in the ST segment
  • Echocardiography may demonstrate the following:
Polycythemia[10][11][12][13][14] +/- - - - - - - +/- - - -
  • Oxygen saturation ≥ 92%
 - - - -
Respiratory distress syndrome[15][16][17][18] + - +/- - - - - + - - - - - -
  • Pulse oximetry is useful in diagnosis
 -
  • Demonstrates the following:
    • Bilateral, diffuse, reticular granular or ground-glass appearance
    • Poor lung expansion
    • Cardiomegaly may or may not be present
    • Streaky opacities may indicate pneumonia
 - -
Shock[19][20][21][22]

- Anaphylactic

- Cardiogenic

- Hypotensive

- Septic

- Toxic

+/- +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- - +/- +/- - - - -
Third space losses[23][24][25]

- Capillary leak

- Surgery

- Trauma

+/- +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- - +/- +/- -
  • May visualize fluid collections
  • More accurately visualize the following:
    • Margins of trauma
    • Fluid collection
  • Useful for diagnosis of soft tissue injury
 - - -
Toxic megacolon[26][27][28][29] +/- +/- +/- - + + +/- - - - -
  • Ultrasound may demonstrate the following:
    • Loss of haustra
    • Hypoechoic and thick bowel walls
    • Dilated colon > 6cm
    • Dilatation of ileal loops
    • Presence of intraluminal gas and fluid
  • The following is noted with x-ray:
  • Dilated colon
  • Loss of haustra
  • Soft tissue masses
  • Segmental parietal thinning
  • Free intraperitoneal air
  • May demonstrate the following:
- -
Classification by etiology Etiology Clinical manifestations Paraclinical findings Comments
Symptoms and signs Lab findings Imaging
Fatigue/Lethargy Thirst Dizziness/Confusion Muscle weakness/cramp Somatic/visceral pain Vomiting Diarrhea Tachypnea Haematuria/Proteinuria Edema CBC KFT Electrolytes Urine analysis ABG Other Ultrasound X-ray CT MRI Other
Intrinsic renal Acute interstitial nephritis[30][31][32][33] +/- - +/- - +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- +/- - -
  • Patients with immunoglobulin G4 - related disease may have elevated serum total IgG and/or IgG4 levels
 - - - -
Acute tubular necrosis[34][35][36][37][38] +/- - - - - +/- - - +/- +/-
  • Pigmented, muddy brown, granular casts
 - -
  • May be useful in cases with nephrolithiasis
  • May also determine area of obstruction
  • May also determine area of obstruction
  • Renal biopsy may demonstrate the following:
    • Loss of tubular cells or the denuded tubules
    • Swollen tubular cells
    • Loss of the cell brush border
  • Useful kidney function biomarkers:
    • Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin
    • Interleukin-18
    • Kidney injury molecule 1
    • Cystatin C
    • Sodium/hydrogen exchanger isoform 3
Cancer[39][40][41][42][43]

- Renal cell carcinoma

- Metastatic cancer

+ - - - +/- +/- - - + +/- -
  • Ultrasound can detect fluid collection and morphologic change
  • Flank mass
  • May determine soft tissue invasion and staging
  • Percutaneous cyst puncture may aid diagnosis of malignant cystic lesions
  • Histology can determine type of cancer
  • Renal cell carcinoma can be divided into the following types:
    • Clear cell (75%)
    • Chromophilic (15%)
    • Chromophobic (5%)
    • Oncocytoma (3%)
    • Collecting duct (2%)
Chronic kidney failure[44][45][46][47][48][49] + - - - +/- - - - + +
  • May demonstrate nephrolithiasis
  • Retrograde pyelogram may determine obstruction
  • May determine renal masses, stones, and cysts
  • Percutaneous renal biopsy is also useful in diagnosis
Congenital kidney disease[50][51][52][53][54]

- Agenesis

- Dysplasia

- Hypoplasia

- Polycystic

+/- - - - +/- +/- - - +/- +/-
  • Decreased GFR
 -
  • Genetic testing for ADPKD1 and ADPKD2
  • Ultrasound is the gold standard for visualization of cysts
  • More sensitive than ultrasound and can detect small cysts (0.5 cm)
  • Useful for determining kidney size and progression
  • Magnetic resonance angiography may determine intracranial aneurysms
 - -
End stage renal disease[44][45][46][47][48][49] + - - - +/- - - - + +
  • May demonstrate nephrolithiasis
  • Retrograde pyelogram may determine obstruction
  • May determine renal masses, stones, and cysts
  • Useful in those who are contraindicated for intravenous contrast
  • May determine renal vein thrombosis
  • Magnetic resonance angiography can diagnose [[[renal artery stenosis]]
  • Percutaneous renal biopsy is also useful in diagnosis
Endogenous toxins[55][56][57][58][59]

- Hemoglobin

- Myoglobin

- Uric acid

+/- - +/- + - +/- - - +/- +/- - - -
  • Voiding cystourethrograms may detect ureter or bladder abnormalities
  • Radionuclide studies may visualize calculi
Glomerulonephritis[60][61][62][63][64][65][66] +/- - - - - - - - + + - - -
  • May determine the following:
    • Kidney size
    • Echogenicity of the renal cortex
    • Obstruction
    • Degree of fibrosis
 -
  • Renal biopsy may aid diagnosis
  • Light and electron microscopy may have specific findings and determine pathology
  • Immunofluorescence may also exhibit diagnostic findings
Goodpasture syndrome[67][68][69][70][71][72] +/- - - - - - - +/- +/- +/- - - -
  • Bilateral, basal, patchy parenchymal consolidations
 - -
Hemolytic uremic syndrome[73][74][75][76] +/- - +/- +/- +/- + + - +/- +/- - -
  • Helpful in ruling out obstruction
 - - -
  • Renal biopsy may demonstrate the following:
    • Diffuse thickening of the glomerular capillary wall
    • Swelling of endothelial cells
    • Fibrin thrombi
Nephrolithiasis[77][78][79][80][81][82] - - - - +/- +/- - - - -
  • Calcium - containing stones are radio-opaque
  • Uric acid or cystine stones are radiolucent
  • Plain or KUB (kidney-ureter-bladder) radiograph may determine stone characteristics such as:
    • Size
    • Shape
    • Composition
    • Location
    • Differentiate between a phlebolith and an obstructing calcific stone
  • Stone movement may also be monitored
 -
  • Intravenous pyelography (IVP) visualizes entire urinary system and is gold standard for the diagnosis of ureterolithiasis
  • Renal tomography can determine similar findings as CT, however has been largely replaced by CT
  • Nuclear renal scan can determine renal function

References

  1. ↑ Dec GW, Palacios IF, Fallon JT, Aretz HT, Mills J, Lee DC, Johnson RA (April 1985). "Active myocarditis in the spectrum of acute dilated cardiomyopathies. Clinical features, histologic correlates, and clinical outcome". N. Engl. J. Med. 312 (14): 885–90. doi:10.1056/NEJM198504043121404. PMID 3974674.
  2. ↑ O'Connell JB, Mason JW (April 1989). "Diagnosing and treating active myocarditis". West. J. Med. 150 (4): 431–5. PMC 1026578. PMID 2660415.
  3. ↑ Olinde KD, O'Connell JB (1994). "Inflammatory heart disease: pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of myocarditis". Annu. Rev. Med. 45: 481–90. doi:10.1146/annurev.med.45.1.481. PMID 8198397.
  4. ↑ Baughman KL (January 2006). "Diagnosis of myocarditis: death of Dallas criteria". Circulation. 113 (4): 593–5. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.589663. PMID 16449736.
  5. ↑ Such J, Runyon BA (October 1998). "Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis". Clin. Infect. Dis. 27 (4): 669–74, quiz 675–6. PMID 9798013.
  6. ↑ Runyon BA (October 1990). "Monomicrobial nonneutrocytic bacterascites: a variant of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis". Hepatology. 12 (4 Pt 1): 710–5. PMID 2210672.
  7. ↑ Selewski DT, Jordan BK, Askenazi DJ, Dechert RE, Sarkar S (April 2013). "Acute kidney injury in asphyxiated newborns treated with therapeutic hypothermia". J. Pediatr. 162 (4): 725–729.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.10.002. PMID 23149172.
  8. ↑ Durkan AM, Alexander RT (February 2011). "Acute kidney injury post neonatal asphyxia". J. Pediatr. 158 (2 Suppl): e29–33. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.11.010. PMID 21238703.
  9. ↑ Karlowicz MG, Adelman RD (December 1995). "Nonoliguric and oliguric acute renal failure in asphyxiated term neonates". Pediatr. Nephrol. 9 (6): 718–22. PMID 8747112.
  10. ↑ Gregg XT, Prchal JT (January 1997). "Erythropoietin receptor mutations and human disease". Semin. Hematol. 34 (1): 70–6. PMID 9025165.
  11. ↑ Kralovics R, Indrak K, Stopka T, Berman BW, Prchal JF, Prchal JT (September 1997). "Two new EPO receptor mutations: truncated EPO receptors are most frequently associated with primary familial and congenital polycythemias". Blood. 90 (5): 2057–61. PMID 9292543.
  12. ↑ Da Silva JL, Lacombe C, Bruneval P, Casadevall N, Leporrier M, Camilleri JP, Bariety J, Tambourin P, Varet B (February 1990). "Tumor cells are the site of erythropoietin synthesis in human renal cancers associated with polycythemia". Blood. 75 (3): 577–82. PMID 2297568.
  13. ↑ Iliopoulos O, Levy AP, Jiang C, Kaelin WG, Goldberg MA (October 1996). "Negative regulation of hypoxia-inducible genes by the von Hippel-Lindau protein". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93 (20): 10595–9. PMC 38198. PMID 8855223.
  14. ↑ Wiesener MS, Seyfarth M, Warnecke C, Jürgensen JS, Rosenberger C, Morgan NV, Maher ER, Frei U, Eckardt KU (May 2002). "Paraneoplastic erythrocytosis associated with an inactivating point mutation of the von Hippel-Lindau gene in a renal cell carcinoma". Blood. 99 (10): 3562–5. PMID 11986208.
  15. ↑ Hooper SB, Te Pas AB, Kitchen MJ (May 2016). "Respiratory transition in the newborn: a three-phase process". Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 101 (3): F266–71. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2013-305704. PMID 26542877.
  16. ↑ Mariani G, Dik PB, Ezquer A, Aguirre A, Esteban ML, Perez C, Fernandez Jonusas S, Fustiñana C (April 2007). "Pre-ductal and post-ductal O2 saturation in healthy term neonates after birth". J. Pediatr. 150 (4): 418–21. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.12.015. PMID 17382123.
  17. ↑ Jain L, Eaton DC (February 2006). "Physiology of fetal lung fluid clearance and the effect of labor". Semin. Perinatol. 30 (1): 34–43. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2006.01.006. PMID 16549212.
  18. ↑ Avery ME (April 2000). "Surfactant deficiency in hyaline membrane disease: the story of discovery". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161 (4 Pt 1): 1074–5. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.161.4.16142. PMID 10764292.
  19. ↑ Vincent JL, De Backer D (October 2013). "Circulatory shock". N. Engl. J. Med. 369 (18): 1726–34. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1208943. PMID 24171518.
  20. ↑ Rodgers KG (November 1995). "Cardiovascular shock". Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. 13 (4): 793–810. PMID 7588190.
  21. ↑ Seymour CW, Liu VX, Iwashyna TJ, Brunkhorst FM, Rea TD, Scherag A, Rubenfeld G, Kahn JM, Shankar-Hari M, Singer M, Deutschman CS, Escobar GJ, Angus DC (February 2016). "Assessment of Clinical Criteria for Sepsis: For the Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3)". JAMA. 315 (8): 762–74. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.0288. PMC 5433435. PMID 26903335.
  22. ↑ Churpek MM, Zadravecz FJ, Winslow C, Howell MD, Edelson DP (October 2015). "Incidence and Prognostic Value of the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome and Organ Dysfunctions in Ward Patients". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 192 (8): 958–64. doi:10.1164/rccm.201502-0275OC. PMC 4642209. PMID 26158402.
  23. ↑ McGee S, Abernethy WB, Simel DL (March 1999). "The rational clinical examination. Is this patient hypovolemic?". JAMA. 281 (11): 1022–9. PMID 10086438.
  24. ↑ Cohn JN (March 1967). "Blood pressure measurement in shock. Mechanism of inaccuracy in ausculatory and palpatory methods". JAMA. 199 (13): 118–22. PMID 5336422.
  25. ↑ Vinayak AG, Levitt J, Gehlbach B, Pohlman AS, Hall JB, Kress JP (October 2006). "Usefulness of the external jugular vein examination in detecting abnormal central venous pressure in critically ill patients". Arch. Intern. Med. 166 (19): 2132–7. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.19.2132. PMID 17060544.
  26. ↑ Jalan KN, Sircus W, Card WI, Falconer CW, Bruce CB, Crean GP, McManus JP, Small WP, Smith AN (July 1969). "An experience of ulcerative colitis. I. Toxic dilation in 55 cases". Gastroenterology. 57 (1): 68–82. PMID 5305933.
  27. ↑ Trudel JL, Deschênes M, Mayrand S, Barkun AN (October 1995). "Toxic megacolon complicating pseudomembranous enterocolitis". Dis. Colon Rectum. 38 (10): 1033–8. PMID 7555415.
  28. ↑ Gan SI, Beck PL (November 2003). "A new look at toxic megacolon: an update and review of incidence, etiology, pathogenesis, and management". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 98 (11): 2363–71. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2003.07696.x. PMID 14638335.
  29. ↑ Caprilli R, Vernia P, Colaneri O, Torsoli A (October 1976). "Blood pH: a test for assessment of severity in proctocolitis". Gut. 17 (10): 763–9. PMC 1411181. PMID 12067.
  30. ↑ Schwarz A, Krause PH, Kunzendorf U, Keller F, Distler A (September 2000). "The outcome of acute interstitial nephritis: risk factors for the transition from acute to chronic interstitial nephritis". Clin. Nephrol. 54 (3): 179–90. PMID 11020015.
  31. ↑ Praga M, González E (June 2010). "Acute interstitial nephritis". Kidney Int. 77 (11): 956–61. doi:10.1038/ki.2010.89. PMID 20336051.
  32. ↑ Buysen JG, Houthoff HJ, Krediet RT, Arisz L (1990). "Acute interstitial nephritis: a clinical and morphological study in 27 patients". Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 5 (2): 94–9. PMID 2113219.
  33. ↑ Rossert J (August 2001). "Drug-induced acute interstitial nephritis". Kidney Int. 60 (2): 804–17. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.060002804.x. PMID 11473672.
  34. ↑ Khwaja A (2012). "KDIGO clinical practice guidelines for acute kidney injury". Nephron Clin Pract. 120 (4): c179–84. doi:10.1159/000339789. PMID 22890468.
  35. ↑ Lameire N, Van Biesen W, Vanholder R (2005). "Acute renal failure". Lancet. 365 (9457): 417–30. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17831-3. PMID 15680458.
  36. ↑ Hsu CY, McCulloch CE, Fan D, Ordoñez JD, Chertow GM, Go AS (July 2007). "Community-based incidence of acute renal failure". Kidney Int. 72 (2): 208–12. doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5002297. PMC 2673495. PMID 17507907.
  37. ↑ Waikar SS, Curhan GC, Wald R, McCarthy EP, Chertow GM (April 2006). "Declining mortality in patients with acute renal failure, 1988 to 2002". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17 (4): 1143–50. doi:10.1681/ASN.2005091017. PMID 16495376.
  38. ↑ Uchino S, Kellum JA, Bellomo R, Doig GS, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, Schetz M, Tan I, Bouman C, Macedo E, Gibney N, Tolwani A, Ronco C (August 2005). "Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a multinational, multicenter study". JAMA. 294 (7): 813–8. doi:10.1001/jama.294.7.813. PMID 16106006.
  39. ↑ Gudbjartsson T, Thoroddsen A, Petursdottir V, Hardarson S, Magnusson J, Einarsson GV (December 2005). "Effect of incidental detection for survival of patients with renal cell carcinoma: results of population-based study of 701 patients". Urology. 66 (6): 1186–91. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2005.07.009. PMID 16360438.
  40. ↑ Skinner DG, Colvin RB, Vermillion CD, Pfister RC, Leadbetter WF (November 1971). "Diagnosis and management of renal cell carcinoma. A clinical and pathologic study of 309 cases". Cancer. 28 (5): 1165–77. PMID 5125665.
  41. ↑ Gibbons RP, Monte JE, Correa RJ, Mason JT (September 1976). "Manifestations of renal cell carcinoma". Urology. 8 (3): 201–6. PMID 788291.
  42. ↑ Pras M, Franklin EC, Shibolet S, Frangione B (September 1982). "Amyloidosis associated with renal cell carcinoma of the AA type". Am. J. Med. 73 (3): 426–8. PMID 7124769.
  43. ↑ Chisholm GD (1974). "Nephrogenic ridge tumors and their syndromes". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 230: 403–23. PMID 4595951.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Abboud H, Henrich WL (January 2010). "Clinical practice. Stage IV chronic kidney disease". N. Engl. J. Med. 362 (1): 56–65. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp0906797. PMID 20054047.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Denic A, Mathew J, Lerman LO, Lieske JC, Larson JJ, Alexander MP, Poggio E, Glassock RJ, Rule AD (June 2017). "Single-Nephron Glomerular Filtration Rate in Healthy Adults". N. Engl. J. Med. 376 (24): 2349–2357. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1614329. PMC 5664219. PMID 28614683.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Sarnak MJ, Greene T, Wang X, Beck G, Kusek JW, Collins AJ, Levey AS (March 2005). "The effect of a lower target blood pressure on the progression of kidney disease: long-term follow-up of the modification of diet in renal disease study". Ann. Intern. Med. 142 (5): 342–51. PMID 15738453.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Eriksen BO, Ingebretsen OC (January 2006). "The progression of chronic kidney disease: a 10-year population-based study of the effects of gender and age". Kidney Int. 69 (2): 375–82. doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5000058. PMID 16408129.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Hallan SI, Coresh J, Astor BC, Asberg A, Powe NR, Romundstad S, Hallan HA, Lydersen S, Holmen J (August 2006). "International comparison of the relationship of chronic kidney disease prevalence and ESRD risk". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 17 (8): 2275–84. doi:10.1681/ASN.2005121273. PMID 16790511.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Hsu CY, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Shlipak MG (July 2004). "The incidence of end-stage renal disease is increasing faster than the prevalence of chronic renal insufficiency". Ann. Intern. Med. 141 (2): 95–101. PMID 15262664.
  50. ↑ Queisser-Luft A, Stolz G, Wiesel A, Schlaefer K, Spranger J (July 2002). "Malformations in newborn: results based on 30,940 infants and fetuses from the Mainz congenital birth defect monitoring system (1990-1998)". Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 266 (3): 163–7. PMID 12197558.
  51. ↑ Sanna-Cherchi S, Ravani P, Corbani V, Parodi S, Haupt R, Piaggio G, Innocenti ML, Somenzi D, Trivelli A, Caridi G, Izzi C, Scolari F, Mattioli G, Allegri L, Ghiggeri GM (September 2009). "Renal outcome in patients with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract". Kidney Int. 76 (5): 528–33. doi:10.1038/ki.2009.220. PMID 19536081.
  52. ↑ Glassberg KI (June 2002). "Normal and abnormal development of the kidney: a clinician's interpretation of current knowledge". J. Urol. 167 (6): 2339–50, discussion 2350–1. PMID 11992035.
  53. ↑ Tabatabaeifar M, Schlingmann KP, Litwin M, Emre S, Bakkaloglu A, Mehls O, Antignac C, Schaefer F, Weber S (December 2009). "Functional analysis of BMP4 mutations identified in pediatric CAKUT patients". Pediatr. Nephrol. 24 (12): 2361–8. doi:10.1007/s00467-009-1287-6. PMID 19685083.
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