Hydronephrosis causes: Difference between revisions

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===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
* Hydronephrosis is most commonly caused by urinary tract obstruction anywhere from kidneys to the urethral opening. It is also caused by non-obstructive conditions.
* Hydronephrosis is most commonly caused by urinary tract obstruction anywhere from [[Kidney|kidneys]] to the [[Urethra|urethral]] opening. It is also caused by non-obstructive conditions.
* The following table summarizes the common causes of hydronephrosis.
* The following table summarizes the common causes of hydronephrosis.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|Kidneys<ref name="pmid25949941">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mehmet NM, Ender O |title=Effect of urinary stone disease and its treatment on renal function |journal=World J Nephrol |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=271–6 |date=May 2015 |pmid=25949941 |pmc=4419137 |doi=10.5527/wjn.v4.i2.271 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19068727">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maruyama T, Kubo M, Shinchou M, Hashimoto T, Mitsui Y, Ueda Y, Suzuki T, Higuchi Y, Qui J, Kondoh N, Nojima M, Yamamoto S, Shima H, Hirota S |title=[Case with renal pelvic carcinoma with giant hydronephrosis] |language=Japanese |journal=Hinyokika Kiyo |volume=54 |issue=11 |pages=727–31 |date=November 2008 |pmid=19068727 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15773364">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abe T, Nakayama J, Kishikawa H, Sekii K, Yoshioka T, Itatani H |title=[Renal cell carcinoma with hydronephrosis due to pelviureteric junction obstruction: a case report] |language=Japanese |journal=Hinyokika Kiyo |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=109–12 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15773364 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6773391">{{cite journal |vauthors=Graeb DA, Uhrich P |title=Diffuse renal transitional cell carcinoma and hydronephrosis |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=620–1 |date=September 1980 |pmid=6773391 |doi=10.2214/ajr.135.3.620 |url=}}</ref>
|[[Kidney|Kidneys]]<ref name="pmid25949941">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mehmet NM, Ender O |title=Effect of urinary stone disease and its treatment on renal function |journal=World J Nephrol |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=271–6 |date=May 2015 |pmid=25949941 |pmc=4419137 |doi=10.5527/wjn.v4.i2.271 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19068727">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maruyama T, Kubo M, Shinchou M, Hashimoto T, Mitsui Y, Ueda Y, Suzuki T, Higuchi Y, Qui J, Kondoh N, Nojima M, Yamamoto S, Shima H, Hirota S |title=[Case with renal pelvic carcinoma with giant hydronephrosis] |language=Japanese |journal=Hinyokika Kiyo |volume=54 |issue=11 |pages=727–31 |date=November 2008 |pmid=19068727 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15773364">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abe T, Nakayama J, Kishikawa H, Sekii K, Yoshioka T, Itatani H |title=[Renal cell carcinoma with hydronephrosis due to pelviureteric junction obstruction: a case report] |language=Japanese |journal=Hinyokika Kiyo |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=109–12 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15773364 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6773391">{{cite journal |vauthors=Graeb DA, Uhrich P |title=Diffuse renal transitional cell carcinoma and hydronephrosis |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=620–1 |date=September 1980 |pmid=6773391 |doi=10.2214/ajr.135.3.620 |url=}}</ref>
|Renal calculi
|[[Kidney stone|Renal calculi]]
Carcinoma involving kidneys  
[[Carcinoma]] involving [[Kidney|kidneys]]


Sloughed renal papilla
Sloughed [[renal papilla]]
|-
|-
|Ureter<ref name="pmid28588843">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ochi F, Furuno K, Chong PF, Tezuka J, Mizuno Y, Aoki T, Ishii E |title=Bilateral hydronephrosis due to obstructive ureteral stone associated with norovirus gastroenteritis |journal=Clin Case Rep |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=936–938 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28588843 |pmc=5458008 |doi=10.1002/ccr3.952 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25548725">{{cite journal |vauthors=Iravani O, Tay EW, Bay BH, Ng YK |title=Unilateral ureteric stone associated with gross hydronephrosis and kidney shrinkage: a cadaveric report |journal=Anat Cell Biol |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=267–70 |date=December 2014 |pmid=25548725 |pmc=4276901 |doi=10.5115/acb.2014.47.4.267 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11978339">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hamano H, Kawa S, Ochi Y, Unno H, Shiba N, Wajiki M, Nakazawa K, Shimojo H, Kiyosawa K |title=Hydronephrosis associated with retroperitoneal fibrosis and sclerosing pancreatitis |journal=Lancet |volume=359 |issue=9315 |pages=1403–4 |date=April 2002 |pmid=11978339 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid466958">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dholakia AM, Howarth FH |title=The urinary tract in haemophilia |journal=Clin Radiol |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=533–8 |date=September 1979 |pmid=466958 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17991533">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cho KS, Hong SJ, Cho NH, Choi YD |title=Grade of hydronephrosis and tumor diameter as preoperative prognostic factors in ureteral transitional cell carcinoma |journal=Urology |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=662–6 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17991533 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.06.1106 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15774597">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kamath S, Moody MP, Hammonds JC, Wells IP |title=Papillary necrosis causing hydronephrosis in renal allograft treated by percutaneous retrieval of sloughed papilla |journal=Br J Radiol |volume=78 |issue=928 |pages=346–8 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15774597 |doi=10.1259/bjr/12933217 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26182896">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ganzer R, Franz T, Rai BP, Siemer S, Stolzenburg JU |title=[Management of ureteral strictures and hydronephrosis] |language=German |journal=Urologe A |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=1147–56 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26182896 |doi=10.1007/s00120-015-3870-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26052193">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sountoulides P, Mykoniatis I, Dimasis N |title=Palliative management of malignant upper urinary tract obstruction |journal=Hippokratia |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=292–7 |date=2014 |pmid=26052193 |pmc=4453800 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid29644043">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grice PT, Nkwam N |title=Inguinal hernia causing extrinsic compression of bilateral ureters leading to chronic obstructive uropathy |journal=J Surg Case Rep |volume=2018 |issue=4 |pages=rjy062 |date=April 2018 |pmid=29644043 |pmc=5888468 |doi=10.1093/jscr/rjy062 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2676751">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lund B, Hansen HH |title=Hydronephrosis in advanced ovarian carcinoma |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |date=October 1989 |pmid=2676751 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26064410">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hu G, Luo M, Xu Y |title=Giant hydronephrosis secondary to ureteropelvic junction obstruction in adults: report of a case and review of literatures |journal=Int J Clin Exp Med |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=4715–7 |date=2015 |pmid=26064410 |pmc=4443244 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27073671">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang D, Li H, Gan W |title=Hydronephrosis associated with ureteral metastasis of prostate cancer: A rare case report |journal=Mol Clin Oncol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=597–598 |date=April 2016 |pmid=27073671 |pmc=4812183 |doi=10.3892/mco.2016.775 |url=}}</ref>
|Ureter<ref name="pmid28588843">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ochi F, Furuno K, Chong PF, Tezuka J, Mizuno Y, Aoki T, Ishii E |title=Bilateral hydronephrosis due to obstructive ureteral stone associated with norovirus gastroenteritis |journal=Clin Case Rep |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=936–938 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28588843 |pmc=5458008 |doi=10.1002/ccr3.952 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25548725">{{cite journal |vauthors=Iravani O, Tay EW, Bay BH, Ng YK |title=Unilateral ureteric stone associated with gross hydronephrosis and kidney shrinkage: a cadaveric report |journal=Anat Cell Biol |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=267–70 |date=December 2014 |pmid=25548725 |pmc=4276901 |doi=10.5115/acb.2014.47.4.267 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11978339">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hamano H, Kawa S, Ochi Y, Unno H, Shiba N, Wajiki M, Nakazawa K, Shimojo H, Kiyosawa K |title=Hydronephrosis associated with retroperitoneal fibrosis and sclerosing pancreatitis |journal=Lancet |volume=359 |issue=9315 |pages=1403–4 |date=April 2002 |pmid=11978339 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid466958">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dholakia AM, Howarth FH |title=The urinary tract in haemophilia |journal=Clin Radiol |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=533–8 |date=September 1979 |pmid=466958 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17991533">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cho KS, Hong SJ, Cho NH, Choi YD |title=Grade of hydronephrosis and tumor diameter as preoperative prognostic factors in ureteral transitional cell carcinoma |journal=Urology |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=662–6 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17991533 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.06.1106 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15774597">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kamath S, Moody MP, Hammonds JC, Wells IP |title=Papillary necrosis causing hydronephrosis in renal allograft treated by percutaneous retrieval of sloughed papilla |journal=Br J Radiol |volume=78 |issue=928 |pages=346–8 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15774597 |doi=10.1259/bjr/12933217 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26182896">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ganzer R, Franz T, Rai BP, Siemer S, Stolzenburg JU |title=[Management of ureteral strictures and hydronephrosis] |language=German |journal=Urologe A |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=1147–56 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26182896 |doi=10.1007/s00120-015-3870-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26052193">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sountoulides P, Mykoniatis I, Dimasis N |title=Palliative management of malignant upper urinary tract obstruction |journal=Hippokratia |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=292–7 |date=2014 |pmid=26052193 |pmc=4453800 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid29644043">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grice PT, Nkwam N |title=Inguinal hernia causing extrinsic compression of bilateral ureters leading to chronic obstructive uropathy |journal=J Surg Case Rep |volume=2018 |issue=4 |pages=rjy062 |date=April 2018 |pmid=29644043 |pmc=5888468 |doi=10.1093/jscr/rjy062 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2676751">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lund B, Hansen HH |title=Hydronephrosis in advanced ovarian carcinoma |journal=Gynecol. Oncol. |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |date=October 1989 |pmid=2676751 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26064410">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hu G, Luo M, Xu Y |title=Giant hydronephrosis secondary to ureteropelvic junction obstruction in adults: report of a case and review of literatures |journal=Int J Clin Exp Med |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=4715–7 |date=2015 |pmid=26064410 |pmc=4443244 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27073671">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang D, Li H, Gan W |title=Hydronephrosis associated with ureteral metastasis of prostate cancer: A rare case report |journal=Mol Clin Oncol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=597–598 |date=April 2016 |pmid=27073671 |pmc=4812183 |doi=10.3892/mco.2016.775 |url=}}</ref>
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[[Transitional cell carcinoma]] of the [[ureter]]
[[Transitional cell carcinoma]] of the [[ureter]]


Sloughed papilla and [[renal papillary necrosis]]
Sloughed papilla and [[renal papillary necrosis]] obstructing the [[ureter]]


[[Infection|Infections]]
[[Infection|Infections]]
Line 71: Line 71:
[[Prostate]] enlargement ([[Benign prostatic hyperplasia]] and [[Hypertrophy (medical)|hypertrophy]])
[[Prostate]] enlargement ([[Benign prostatic hyperplasia]] and [[Hypertrophy (medical)|hypertrophy]])


Urethral stones
Urethral Urethral valves ([[Posterior urethral valves]], and anterior urethral valves)
 
Urethral valves ([[Posterior urethral valves]], and anterior urethral valves)
|}
|}


Revision as of 16:53, 6 June 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Chandrakala Yannam, MD [2]

Overview

Disease name] may be caused by [cause1], [cause2], or [cause3].

OR

Common causes of [disease] include [cause1], [cause2], and [cause3].

OR

The most common cause of [disease name] is [cause 1]. Less common causes of [disease name] include [cause 2], [cause 3], and [cause 4].

OR

The cause of [disease name] has not been identified. To review risk factors for the development of [disease name], click here

Causes

Life-threatening Causes

  • Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated. There are no life-threatening causes of hydronephrosis, however, complications resulting from untreated hydronephrosis are common.

Common Causes

  • Hydronephrosis is most commonly caused by urinary tract obstruction anywhere from kidneys to the urethral opening. It is also caused by non-obstructive conditions.
  • The following table summarizes the common causes of hydronephrosis.
Kidneys[1][2][3][4] Renal calculi

Carcinoma involving kidneys

Sloughed renal papilla

Ureter[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Ureteral calculi

Retroperitoneal fibrosis

Blood clots retention

Transitional cell carcinoma of the ureter

Sloughed papilla and renal papillary necrosis obstructing the ureter

Infections

Ureteral strictures by trauma, iatrogenic injury, radiation

Ureteropelvic junction obstruction

Extrinsic tumors and masses causing compression and hydronephrosis (eg, inguinal hernia, retroperitoneal lymph nodes, retroperitoneal tumors, prostate cancer, cervical and endometrial tumors and abdominal malignancies)

Bladder[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] Bladder cancer (eg, transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder)

Bladder calculi

Neurogenic bladder

Vesicoureteral reflux

Inflammation of the bladder (eg, radiation, endometriosis)

Bladder hypertrophy

Bladder-neck obstruction

Urethra[26][27][28] Urethral strictures (eg, Bacterial urethritis, Indwelling urinary catheter, prostate surgeries, cystoscopy)

Prostate enlargement (Benign prostatic hyperplasia and hypertrophy)

Urethral Urethral valves (Posterior urethral valves, and anterior urethral valves)

Less Common Causes

Less common causes of disease name include:

  • Fungal ball[29]
  • Ketamine abuse [30]
  • Physiologic hydronephrosis may be seen in pregnancy.[31]
  • Pelvic lipomatosis[32]


References

  1. ↑ Mehmet NM, Ender O (May 2015). "Effect of urinary stone disease and its treatment on renal function". World J Nephrol. 4 (2): 271–6. doi:10.5527/wjn.v4.i2.271. PMC 4419137. PMID 25949941.
  2. ↑ Maruyama T, Kubo M, Shinchou M, Hashimoto T, Mitsui Y, Ueda Y, Suzuki T, Higuchi Y, Qui J, Kondoh N, Nojima M, Yamamoto S, Shima H, Hirota S (November 2008). "[Case with renal pelvic carcinoma with giant hydronephrosis]". Hinyokika Kiyo (in Japanese). 54 (11): 727–31. PMID 19068727.
  3. ↑ Abe T, Nakayama J, Kishikawa H, Sekii K, Yoshioka T, Itatani H (February 2005). "[Renal cell carcinoma with hydronephrosis due to pelviureteric junction obstruction: a case report]". Hinyokika Kiyo (in Japanese). 51 (2): 109–12. PMID 15773364.
  4. ↑ Graeb DA, Uhrich P (September 1980). "Diffuse renal transitional cell carcinoma and hydronephrosis". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 135 (3): 620–1. doi:10.2214/ajr.135.3.620. PMID 6773391.
  5. ↑ Ochi F, Furuno K, Chong PF, Tezuka J, Mizuno Y, Aoki T, Ishii E (June 2017). "Bilateral hydronephrosis due to obstructive ureteral stone associated with norovirus gastroenteritis". Clin Case Rep. 5 (6): 936–938. doi:10.1002/ccr3.952. PMC 5458008. PMID 28588843.
  6. ↑ Iravani O, Tay EW, Bay BH, Ng YK (December 2014). "Unilateral ureteric stone associated with gross hydronephrosis and kidney shrinkage: a cadaveric report". Anat Cell Biol. 47 (4): 267–70. doi:10.5115/acb.2014.47.4.267. PMC 4276901. PMID 25548725.
  7. ↑ Hamano H, Kawa S, Ochi Y, Unno H, Shiba N, Wajiki M, Nakazawa K, Shimojo H, Kiyosawa K (April 2002). "Hydronephrosis associated with retroperitoneal fibrosis and sclerosing pancreatitis". Lancet. 359 (9315): 1403–4. PMID 11978339.
  8. ↑ Dholakia AM, Howarth FH (September 1979). "The urinary tract in haemophilia". Clin Radiol. 30 (5): 533–8. PMID 466958.
  9. ↑ Cho KS, Hong SJ, Cho NH, Choi YD (October 2007). "Grade of hydronephrosis and tumor diameter as preoperative prognostic factors in ureteral transitional cell carcinoma". Urology. 70 (4): 662–6. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2007.06.1106. PMID 17991533.
  10. ↑ Kamath S, Moody MP, Hammonds JC, Wells IP (April 2005). "Papillary necrosis causing hydronephrosis in renal allograft treated by percutaneous retrieval of sloughed papilla". Br J Radiol. 78 (928): 346–8. doi:10.1259/bjr/12933217. PMID 15774597.
  11. ↑ Ganzer R, Franz T, Rai BP, Siemer S, Stolzenburg JU (August 2015). "[Management of ureteral strictures and hydronephrosis]". Urologe A (in German). 54 (8): 1147–56. doi:10.1007/s00120-015-3870-8. PMID 26182896.
  12. ↑ Sountoulides P, Mykoniatis I, Dimasis N (2014). "Palliative management of malignant upper urinary tract obstruction". Hippokratia. 18 (4): 292–7. PMC 4453800. PMID 26052193.
  13. ↑ Grice PT, Nkwam N (April 2018). "Inguinal hernia causing extrinsic compression of bilateral ureters leading to chronic obstructive uropathy". J Surg Case Rep. 2018 (4): rjy062. doi:10.1093/jscr/rjy062. PMC 5888468. PMID 29644043.
  14. ↑ Lund B, Hansen HH (October 1989). "Hydronephrosis in advanced ovarian carcinoma". Gynecol. Oncol. 35 (1): 27–30. PMID 2676751.
  15. ↑ Hu G, Luo M, Xu Y (2015). "Giant hydronephrosis secondary to ureteropelvic junction obstruction in adults: report of a case and review of literatures". Int J Clin Exp Med. 8 (3): 4715–7. PMC 4443244. PMID 26064410.
  16. ↑ Zhang D, Li H, Gan W (April 2016). "Hydronephrosis associated with ureteral metastasis of prostate cancer: A rare case report". Mol Clin Oncol. 4 (4): 597–598. doi:10.3892/mco.2016.775. PMC 4812183. PMID 27073671.
  17. ↑ Haleblian GE, Skinner EC, Dickinson MG, Lieskovsky G, Boyd SD, Skinner DG (December 1998). "Hydronephrosis as a prognostic indicator in bladder cancer patients". J. Urol. 160 (6 Pt 1): 2011–4. PMID 9817312.
  18. ↑ Ofluoglu Y, Aydin HR, Kocaaslan R, Adanur S, Ziypak T (October 2013). "A cause of renal dysfunction: a giant bladder stone". Eurasian J Med. 45 (3): 211–3. doi:10.5152/eajm.2013.41. PMC 4261423. PMID 25610281.
  19. ↑ Gormley EA (November 2010). "Urologic complications of the neurogenic bladder". Urol. Clin. North Am. 37 (4): 601–7. doi:10.1016/j.ucl.2010.07.002. PMID 20955911.
  20. ↑ Hodges SJ, Patel B, McLorie G, Atala A (October 2009). "Posterior urethral valves". ScientificWorldJournal. 9: 1119–26. doi:10.1100/tsw.2009.127. PMC 5823193. PMID 19838598.
  21. ↑ Mattoo TK (September 2011). "Vesicoureteral reflux and reflux nephropathy". Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 18 (5): 348–54. doi:10.1053/j.ackd.2011.07.006. PMC 3169795. PMID 21896376.
  22. ↑ Jung LY, Kang KP, Kim W, Park SK, Lee S (June 2012). "Masked hydronephrosis". Korean J. Intern. Med. 27 (2): 244. doi:10.3904/kjim.2012.27.2.244. PMC 3372815. PMID 22707903.
  23. ↑ Efe E, Bakacak M, Serin S, Kolus E, Ercan O, Resim S (2014). "Hormonal treatment for severe hydronephrosis caused by bladder endometriosis". Case Rep Urol. 2014: 891295. doi:10.1155/2014/891295. PMC 4251884. PMID 25506035.
  24. ↑ Iqbal S, Raiz I, Faiz I (March 2017). "Bilateral Hydroureteronephrosis with a Hypertrophied, Trabeculated Urinary Bladder". Malays J Med Sci. 24 (2): 106–115. doi:10.21315/mjms2017.24.2.14. PMC 5566069. PMID 28894411.
  25. ↑ Tazi MF, Riyach O, Ahallal Y, Mellas S, Khallouk A, El Fassi MJ, Farih MH (2012). "Giant Urinary Bladder and Bilateral Giant Hydronephrosis due to Bladder Neck Obstruction: One Case Report and Literature Review". Case Rep Urol. 2012: 817519. doi:10.1155/2012/817519. PMC 3350214. PMID 22606637.
  26. ↑ Tritschler S, Roosen A, Füllhase C, Stief CG, Rübben H (March 2013). "Urethral stricture: etiology, investigation and treatments". Dtsch Arztebl Int. 110 (13): 220–6. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2013.0220. PMC 3627163. PMID 23596502.
  27. ↑ Sarmina I, Resnick MI (April 1989). "Obstructive uropathy in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia". J. Urol. 141 (4): 866–9. PMID 2467012.
  28. ↑ Godwin OI, Ayotunde OO (December 2007). "Posterior Urethral Valves with Severe Unilateral Vesicoureteral Reflux in a 3-year-old Boy". Ann Ib Postgrad Med. 5 (2): 73–6. PMC 4110994. PMID 25161437.
  29. ↑ Kale H, Narlawar RS, Rathod K (2002). "Renal fungal ball: an unusual sonographic finding". J Clin Ultrasound. 30 (3): 178–80. PMID 11948574.
  30. ↑ Tran VH, Nelson M, Nogar J, Bramante RM (July 2014). "Bilateral hydronephrosis and cystitis resulting from chronic ketamine abuse". West J Emerg Med. 15 (4): 382–4. doi:10.5811/westjem.2014.4.20571. PMC 4100838. PMID 25035738.
  31. ↑ Rasmussen PE, Nielsen FR (March 1988). "Hydronephrosis during pregnancy: a literature survey". Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 27 (3): 249–59. PMID 3280355.
  32. ↑ Nakata S, Ohtsuka Y, Koya T, Nakano K, Takahashi H (January 2007). "[A case of combination with proliferative cystitis and pelvic lipomatosis causing bilateral hydronephrosis]". Nippon Hinyokika Gakkai Zasshi (in Japanese). 98 (1): 37–40. PMID 17302294.

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