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{{CMG}}{{SCC}} {{AE}} {{Maliha}}, {{USAMA}}
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==Overview==
==Overview==
More than 85% of cases of cystitis are caused by ''[[escherichia coli]] ("E. coli")'', a bacterium found in the lower gastrointestinal tract. Some viruses, fungi and parasites can also rarely cause cystitis. Other causes of cystitis include certain medications, [[diabetes]], [[Crohn's disease]], iatrogenic causes, [[endometriosis]], [[pelvic inflammatory disease]], [[urinary obstruction]], [[bladder incontinence]], Bladder Catheterisation, Trauma, Contraceptives like spermicides, Immobility and Genetic predisposition.<ref name="pmid12113867">{{cite journal| author=Ronald A| title=The etiology of urinary tract infection: traditional and emerging pathogens. | journal=Am J Med | year= 2002 | volume= 113 Suppl 1A | issue=  | pages= 14S-19S | pmid=12113867 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12113867  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11564026">{{cite journal| author=Aydos MM, Memis A, Yakupoglu YK, Ozdal OL, Oztekin V| title=The use and efficacy of the American Urological Association Symptom Index in assessing the outcome of urethroplasty for post-traumatic complete posterior urethral strictures. | journal=BJU Int | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 4 | pages= 382-4 | pmid=11564026 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11564026  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11505545">{{cite journal| author=Bilichenko SV, Maĭzel's IG, Golovina EI, Arkhipov VV| title=[Bladder foreign body in a 4-year-old girl]. | journal=Urologiia | year= 2001 | volume=  | issue= 3 | pages= 42-3 | pmid=11505545 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11505545  }} </ref>
[[Infection|Infections]] are the most common cause of cystitis. More than 80% of cases of cystitis are caused by ''[[Escherichia coli]] ([[Escherichia coli|E. Coli]])'', a [[Bacteria|bacterium]] found in the [[Gastrointestinal tract|lower gastrointestinal tract]]. Some viruses, fungi and parasites can also rarely cause cystitis. Other causes of cystitis include certain [[Medication|medications]], [[diabetes]], [[Crohn's disease]], iatrogenic causes, [[endometriosis]], [[pelvic inflammatory disease]], [[urinary obstruction]], [[bladder incontinence]], bladder catheterisation, trauma, contraceptives like spermicides, immobility and genetic predisposition.


==Causes==
==Causes==
===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
Infections are the most common cause of cystitis. More than 80% of cases of cystitis are caused by ''[[escherichia coli]] ("E. coli")'', a bacterium found in the lower gastrointestinal tract. Pathogens causing cystitis include: <ref name="pmid12113867">{{cite journal| author=Ronald A| title=The etiology of urinary tract infection: traditional and emerging pathogens. | journal=Am J Med | year= 2002 | volume= 113 Suppl 1A | issue=  | pages= 14S-19S | pmid=12113867 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12113867  }} </ref>
[[Infection|Infections]] are the most common cause of cystitis. More than 80% of cases of cystitis are caused by ''[[Escherichia coli]] ([[Escherichia coli|E. Coli]])'', a [[Bacteria|bacterium]] found in the [[Gastrointestinal tract|lower gastrointestinal tract]]. Pathogens causing cystitis include: <ref name="pmid12113867">{{cite journal| author=Ronald A| title=The etiology of urinary tract infection: traditional and emerging pathogens. | journal=Am J Med | year= 2002 | volume= 113 Suppl 1A | issue=  | pages= 14S-19S | pmid=12113867 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12113867 }} </ref><ref name="pmid11564026">{{cite journal| author=Aydos MM, Memis A, Yakupoglu YK, Ozdal OL, Oztekin V| title=The use and efficacy of the American Urological Association Symptom Index in assessing the outcome of urethroplasty for post-traumatic complete posterior urethral strictures. | journal=BJU Int | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 4 | pages= 382-4 | pmid=11564026 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11564026  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11505545">{{cite journal| author=Bilichenko SV, Maĭzel's IG, Golovina EI, Arkhipov VV| title=[Bladder foreign body in a 4-year-old girl]. | journal=Urologiia | year= 2001 | volume=  | issue= 3 | pages= 42-3 | pmid=11505545 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11505545 }} </ref>


*Gram Negative Bacteria
*Gram negative bacteria
**[[Escherichia Coli]]
**[[Escherichia Coli]]
**[[Klebsiella]]
**[[Klebsiella]]
Line 15: Line 15:
**[[Proteus]] species
**[[Proteus]] species


*Gram Positive Bacteria
*Gram positive bacteria
**[[Enterococci]]
**[[Enterococci]]
**[[Staphylococcus saprophyticus]]
**[[Staphylococcus saprophyticus]]
 
Common non-pathogen causes include:<ref name="pmid510344">{{cite journal| author=Cox PJ| title=Cyclophosphamide cystitis and bladder cancer. A hypothesis. | journal=Eur J Cancer | year= 1979 | volume= 15 | issue= 8 | pages= 1071-2 | pmid=510344 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=510344  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10864217">{{cite journal| author=Russo P| title=Urologic emergencies in the cancer patient. | journal=Semin Oncol | year= 2000 | volume= 27 | issue= 3 | pages= 284-98 | pmid=10864217 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10864217  }} </ref>
*Common non-pathogen causes<ref name="pmid510344">{{cite journal| author=Cox PJ| title=Cyclophosphamide cystitis and bladder cancer. A hypothesis. | journal=Eur J Cancer | year= 1979 | volume= 15 | issue= 8 | pages= 1071-2 | pmid=510344 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=510344  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10864217">{{cite journal| author=Russo P| title=Urologic emergencies in the cancer patient. | journal=Semin Oncol | year= 2000 | volume= 27 | issue= 3 | pages= 284-98 | pmid=10864217 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10864217  }} </ref>
*[[Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)|Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia]]
**[[Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)|Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia]]
*[[Cyclophosphamide]]
**[[Cyclophosphamide]]
*[[Diabetes]]
**[[Diabetes]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
**[[Pregnancy]]
*Radiation therapy
**[[radiation]] therapy
 
===Less Common/Rare Causes===
===Less Common/Rare Causes===
Some less common or rare causes of cystitis may include:<ref name="pmid21349389">{{cite journal| author=Ples R, Méchaï F, Champiat B, Droupy S, Huerre M, Guettier C et al.| title=[Pseudotumoral toxoplasmic cystitis revealing acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]. | journal=Ann Pathol | year= 2011 | volume= 31 | issue= 1 | pages= 46-9 | pmid=21349389 | doi=10.1016/j.annpat.2010.11.001 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21349389  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28001179">{{cite journal| author=Teles F, Santos LG, Tenório CE, Marinho MR, Moraes SR, Câmara DB et al.| title=Lupus cystitis presenting with hidronephrosis and gastrointestinal involvement. | journal=J Bras Nefrol | year= 2016 | volume= 38 | issue= 4 | pages= 478-482 | pmid=28001179 | doi=10.5935/0101-2800.20160077 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28001179  }} </ref>
Some less common or rare causes of cystitis may include:<ref name="pmid21349389">{{cite journal| author=Ples R, Méchaï F, Champiat B, Droupy S, Huerre M, Guettier C et al.| title=[Pseudotumoral toxoplasmic cystitis revealing acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]. | journal=Ann Pathol | year= 2011 | volume= 31 | issue= 1 | pages= 46-9 | pmid=21349389 | doi=10.1016/j.annpat.2010.11.001 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21349389  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28001179">{{cite journal| author=Teles F, Santos LG, Tenório CE, Marinho MR, Moraes SR, Câmara DB et al.| title=Lupus cystitis presenting with hidronephrosis and gastrointestinal involvement. | journal=J Bras Nefrol | year= 2016 | volume= 38 | issue= 4 | pages= 478-482 | pmid=28001179 | doi=10.5935/0101-2800.20160077 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28001179  }} </ref>
Line 37: Line 35:


===Hemorrhagic Causes===
===Hemorrhagic Causes===
Hemorrhagic cystitis can be caused by certain medications, procedures, radiation therapy and infections. <ref name="pmid510344">{{cite journal| author=Cox PJ| title=Cyclophosphamide cystitis and bladder cancer. A hypothesis. | journal=Eur J Cancer | year= 1979 | volume= 15 | issue= 8 | pages= 1071-2 | pmid=510344 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=510344  }} </ref><ref name="pmid10864217">{{cite journal| author=Russo P| title=Urologic emergencies in the cancer patient. | journal=Semin Oncol | year= 2000 | volume= 27 | issue= 3 | pages= 284-98 | pmid=10864217 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10864217 }} </ref><ref name="pmid27919130">{{cite journal| author=Wakamiya T, Kuramoto T, Inagaki T| title=[Two Cases of Spontaneous Rupture of the Urinary Bladder Associated with Radiation Cystitis, Repaired with Omentum Covering]. | journal=Hinyokika Kiyo | year= 2016 | volume= 62 | issue= 10 | pages= 545-548 | pmid=27919130 | doi=10.14989/ActaUrolJap_62_10_545 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27919130 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19755771">{{cite journal| author=Toma Y, Ishiki T, Nagahama K, Okumura K, Kamiyama T, Kohagura K et al.| title=Penicillin G-induced hemorrhagic cystitis with hydronephrosis. | journal=Intern Med | year= 2009 | volume= 48 | issue= 18 | pages= 1667-9 | pmid=19755771 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19755771 }} </ref>
Hemorrhagic cystitis can be caused by:<ref name="pmid510344">{{cite journal| author=Cox PJ| title=Cyclophosphamide cystitis and bladder cancer. A hypothesis. | journal=Eur J Cancer | year= 1979 | volume= 15 | issue= 8 | pages= 1071-2 | pmid=510344 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=510344  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27919130">{{cite journal| author=Wakamiya T, Kuramoto T, Inagaki T| title=[Two Cases of Spontaneous Rupture of the Urinary Bladder Associated with Radiation Cystitis, Repaired with Omentum Covering]. | journal=Hinyokika Kiyo | year= 2016 | volume= 62 | issue= 10 | pages= 545-548 | pmid=27919130 | doi=10.14989/ActaUrolJap_62_10_545 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27919130 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19755771">{{cite journal| author=Toma Y, Ishiki T, Nagahama K, Okumura K, Kamiyama T, Kohagura K et al.| title=Penicillin G-induced hemorrhagic cystitis with hydronephrosis. | journal=Intern Med | year= 2009 | volume= 48 | issue= 18 | pages= 1667-9 | pmid=19755771 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19755771 }} </ref><ref name="pmid10864217">{{cite journal| author=Russo P| title=Urologic emergencies in the cancer patient. | journal=Semin Oncol | year= 2000 | volume= 27 | issue= 3 | pages= 284-98 | pmid=10864217 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10864217 }} </ref>
 
* Medications such as:
*[[Cyclophosphamide]]
** [[Cyclophosphamide]]
*[[Ifosfamide]]
**[[Ifosfamide]]
*[[Penicillin G]]
**[[Penicillin G]]
*[[Radiation]] therapy
**[[Ketamine]]
*[[Adenovirus]]
* Procedures
*[[Ketamine]]
* [[Radiation]] therapy
*Metabolites of chemotherapeutic drugs
*[[Adenovirus]] infection


===Other Disease Causes===
===Other Disease Causes===

Revision as of 18:56, 13 June 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Steven C. Campbell, M.D., Ph.D. Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Maliha Shakil, M.D. [2], Usama Talib, BSc, MD [3]

Overview

Infections are the most common cause of cystitis. More than 80% of cases of cystitis are caused by Escherichia coli (E. Coli), a bacterium found in the lower gastrointestinal tract. Some viruses, fungi and parasites can also rarely cause cystitis. Other causes of cystitis include certain medications, diabetes, Crohn's disease, iatrogenic causes, endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, urinary obstruction, bladder incontinence, bladder catheterisation, trauma, contraceptives like spermicides, immobility and genetic predisposition.

Causes

Common Causes

Infections are the most common cause of cystitis. More than 80% of cases of cystitis are caused by Escherichia coli (E. Coli), a bacterium found in the lower gastrointestinal tract. Pathogens causing cystitis include: [1][2][3]

Common non-pathogen causes include:[4][5]

Less Common/Rare Causes

Some less common or rare causes of cystitis may include:[6][7]

Hemorrhagic Causes

Hemorrhagic cystitis can be caused by:[4][8][9][5]

Other Disease Causes

The following syndromes can lead to cystitis:[6][7][10][1]

Causes by Organ System

The causes of cystitis with rest to organ system can be classified as:[7][11][12][13][14][4][5][8][15][16][3][17][18][19][20]

Cardiovascular No underlying causes
Chemical / poisoning Artificial sweeteners, benzidine, chemical cystitis, diaphragm, feminine hygeine sprays, perfumed soap, spermicidal jellies, talcum powder
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Allopurinol, BCG vaccine, Cetirizine, Cyclophosphamide, Cytarabine, Danazol, Doxorubicin, drug induced cystitis, hexaminolevulinate Ifosfamide, Leflunomide, Methotrexate, NSAIDs, Oxaprozin, Pramipexole, Sertraline, Tiagabine, Tiaprofenic acid, Ticarcillin, Topiramate, Tranilast
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Diabetes, diabetic neuropathy
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic Crohn's disease, diarrhea, diverticulitis, vescicoenteric fistula
Genetic Urofacial syndrome, adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency
Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic Cystoscopy, radiotherapy, urinary catheter, episiotomy scar infection
Infectious Disease Candida, chlamydia, E. coli, enterobacter, gonorrhea, klebsiella, prostatitis, pseudomonas aeruginosa, schistosomiasis, serratia, sexually transmitted diseases, staphylococcus saprophyticus, trichomoniasis, tuberculosis, urinary tract infection
Musculoskeletal / Ortho No underlying causes
Neurologic Diabetic neuropathy
Nutritional / Metabolic Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency, alcohol, caffeine, chocolate, poor nutrition, tomatoes, xanthinuria, artificial sweeteners
Obstetric/Gynecologic Endometriosis, gynecological cancers, menopause, PID, pregnancy, episiotomy scar infection
Oncologic Gynecological cancers, Urachal cancer
Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal / Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheum / Immune / Allergy Behcet's disease, Systemic lupus Erythematosis, Crohn's disease, autoimmune interstitial cystitis
Sexual Frequent intercourse, men having sex with men, Intense intercourse, honeymoon cystitis
Trauma Spinal cord injury
Urologic Autoimmune interstitial cystitis, benign prostate hyperplasia, bladder incontinence, congenital abnormalities of the urinary tract, enlarged prostate, honeymoon cystitis, Hunner's ulcer, interstitial cystitis, narrowing of the urethral opening, posterior urethral valve, urachal cancer, urachal cyst, urethral syndrome, urethritis, urinary obstruction, urinary stones, vescicoenteric fistula, urinary tract infection
Dental No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Dehydration, foreign body cystitis, immobility, old age, poor hygeine, Use of Sanitary Pads, tight fitting underwear

Causes in Alphabetical Order


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Ronald A (2002). "The etiology of urinary tract infection: traditional and emerging pathogens". Am J Med. 113 Suppl 1A: 14S–19S. PMID 12113867.
  2. ↑ Aydos MM, Memis A, Yakupoglu YK, Ozdal OL, Oztekin V (2001). "The use and efficacy of the American Urological Association Symptom Index in assessing the outcome of urethroplasty for post-traumatic complete posterior urethral strictures". BJU Int. 88 (4): 382–4. PMID 11564026.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Bilichenko SV, Maĭzel's IG, Golovina EI, Arkhipov VV (2001). "[Bladder foreign body in a 4-year-old girl]". Urologiia (3): 42–3. PMID 11505545.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Cox PJ (1979). "Cyclophosphamide cystitis and bladder cancer. A hypothesis". Eur J Cancer. 15 (8): 1071–2. PMID 510344.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Russo P (2000). "Urologic emergencies in the cancer patient". Semin Oncol. 27 (3): 284–98. PMID 10864217.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Ples R, Méchaï F, Champiat B, Droupy S, Huerre M, Guettier C; et al. (2011). "[Pseudotumoral toxoplasmic cystitis revealing acquired immunodeficiency syndrome]". Ann Pathol. 31 (1): 46–9. doi:10.1016/j.annpat.2010.11.001. PMID 21349389.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Teles F, Santos LG, Tenório CE, Marinho MR, Moraes SR, Câmara DB; et al. (2016). "Lupus cystitis presenting with hidronephrosis and gastrointestinal involvement". J Bras Nefrol. 38 (4): 478–482. doi:10.5935/0101-2800.20160077. PMID 28001179.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Wakamiya T, Kuramoto T, Inagaki T (2016). "[Two Cases of Spontaneous Rupture of the Urinary Bladder Associated with Radiation Cystitis, Repaired with Omentum Covering]". Hinyokika Kiyo. 62 (10): 545–548. doi:10.14989/ActaUrolJap_62_10_545. PMID 27919130.
  9. ↑ Toma Y, Ishiki T, Nagahama K, Okumura K, Kamiyama T, Kohagura K; et al. (2009). "Penicillin G-induced hemorrhagic cystitis with hydronephrosis". Intern Med. 48 (18): 1667–9. PMID 19755771.
  10. ↑ Platt R, Polk BF, Murdock B, Rosner B (1986). "Risk factors for nosocomial urinary tract infection". Am J Epidemiol. 124 (6): 977–85. PMID 3776980.
  11. ↑ Hooton TM, Stamm WE (1997). "Diagnosis and treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infection". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 11 (3): 551–81. PMID 9378923.
  12. ↑ Friedlander JI, Shorter B, Moldwin RM (2012). "Diet and its role in interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) and comorbid conditions". BJU Int. 109 (11): 1584–91. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10860.x. PMID 22233286.
  13. ↑ Leutscher PD, Pedersen M, Raharisolo C, Jensen JS, Hoffmann S, Lisse I; et al. (2005). "Increased prevalence of leukocytes and elevated cytokine levels in semen from Schistosoma haematobium-infected individuals". J Infect Dis. 191 (10): 1639–47. doi:10.1086/429334. PMID 15838790.
  14. ↑ Okazaki S, Hori J, Kita M, Yamaguchi S, Kawakami N, Kakizaki H (2014). "[A case of eosinophilic cystitis mimicking an invasive bladder cancer]". Hinyokika Kiyo. 60 (12): 635–9. PMID 25602481.
  15. ↑ Cunha BA, Lee P, Kaouris N, Raza M (2015). "The safety of nitrofurantoin for the treatment of nosocomial catheter-associated bacteriuria (CAB) and cystitis". J Chemother. 27 (2): 122–3. doi:10.1179/1973947814Y.0000000202. PMID 25004793.
  16. ↑ Teal SB, Craven WM (2006). "Inadvertent vesicular placement of a vaginal contraceptive ring presenting as persistent cystitis". Obstet Gynecol. 107 (2 Pt 2): 470–2. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000164072.91339.9e. PMID 16449153.
  17. ↑ Grimsby GM, Tyson MD, Salevitz B, Smith ML, Castle EP (2012). "Bladder Outlet Obstruction Secondary to a Brunn's Cyst". Curr Urol. 6 (1): 50–2. doi:10.1159/000338871. PMC 3783323. PMID 24917712.
  18. ↑ Tzou KY, Chiang YT (2016). "Emphysematous Cystitis". N Engl J Med. 375 (18): 1779. doi:10.1056/NEJMicm1509543. PMID 27806219.
  19. ↑ Echols RM, Tosiello RL, Haverstock DC, Tice AD (1999). "Demographic, clinical, and treatment parameters influencing the outcome of acute cystitis". Clin Infect Dis. 29 (1): 113–9. doi:10.1086/520138. PMID 10433573.
  20. ↑ de Cueto M, Aliaga L, Alós JI, Canut A, Los-Arcos I, Martínez JA; et al. (2016). "Executive summary of the diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infection: Guidelines of the Spanish Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (SEIMC)". Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. doi:10.1016/j.eimc.2016.11.005. PMID 28017477.
  21. ↑ Barnes RC, Daifuku R, Roddy RE, Stamm WE (1986). "Urinary-tract infection in sexually active homosexual men". Lancet. 1 (8474): 171–3. PMID 2868203.
  22. ↑ Russell DB, Roth NJ (2001). "Urinary tract infections in men in a primary care population". Aust Fam Physician. 30 (2): 177–9. PMID 11280121.
  23. ↑ Chang PC, Hsu YC, Hsieh ML, Huang ST, Huang HC, Chen Y (2016). "A pilot study on Trichomonas vaginalis in women with recurrent urinary tract infections". Biomed J. 39 (4): 289–294. doi:10.1016/j.bj.2015.11.005. PMID 27793272.
  24. ↑ Jellouli M, Ben Mansour A, Abidi K, Ferjani M, Naija O, Hammi Y; et al. (2016). "Contribution of ultrasound scans in the first episode of urinary tract infection in children". Tunis Med. 94 (6): 167–170. PMID 28051222.


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