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=== Pseudohyperkalemia === | === Pseudohyperkalemia === | ||
Pseudohyperkalemia is defined when serum potassium concentration exceeds that of plasma without any symptoms of hyperkalemia. | [[Pseudohyperkalemia]] is defined when serum potassium concentration exceeds that of plasma without any symptoms of hyperkalemia. | ||
* It usually occurs when potassium moves out of cells during blood specimen collection or during centrifugation of the sample. | * It usually occurs when potassium moves out of cells during blood specimen collection or during [[centrifugation]] of the sample. | ||
* Other causes are thrombocytosis, leukocytosis and erythrocytosis. | * Other causes are [[thrombocytosis]], [[leukocytosis]] and [[Polycythemia|erythrocytosis]]. | ||
* To rule out pseudohyperkalemia we need to do the following :<ref name="pmid29472808">{{cite journal| author=Šálek T| title=Pseudohyperkalemia - Potassium released from cells due to clotting and centrifugation - a case report. | journal=Biochem Med (Zagreb) | year= 2018 | volume= 28 | issue= 1 | pages= 011002 | pmid=29472808 | doi=10.11613/BM.2018.011002 | pmc=5806620 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29472808 }} </ref> | * To rule out pseudohyperkalemia we need to do the following :<ref name="pmid29472808">{{cite journal| author=Šálek T| title=Pseudohyperkalemia - Potassium released from cells due to clotting and centrifugation - a case report. | journal=Biochem Med (Zagreb) | year= 2018 | volume= 28 | issue= 1 | pages= 011002 | pmid=29472808 | doi=10.11613/BM.2018.011002 | pmc=5806620 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29472808 }} </ref> | ||
** Repeat the blood sample. | ** Repeat the blood sample. | ||
| Line 37: | Line 37: | ||
== Common Diagnostic Studies == | == Common Diagnostic Studies == | ||
The serum potassium must be performed when: | The serum potassium must be performed when: | ||
* The patient presented with cardiac arrhythmias, weakness, fatigue and known case of chronic kidney disease. The following investigations must be performed : | * The patient presented with [[Cardiac arrhythmia|cardiac arrhythmias]], [[Muscle weakness|weakness]], [[fatigue]] and known case of [[Chronic renal failure|chronic kidney disease]]. The following investigations must be performed : | ||
* Blood pressure(to look for hypoaldosteronism) | * Blood pressure(to look for [[hypoaldosteronism]]) | ||
* Complete blood count | * Complete blood count | ||
* Renal function tests | * Renal function tests | ||
| Line 44: | Line 44: | ||
* Metabolic profile(other electrolytes) | * Metabolic profile(other electrolytes) | ||
* ECG | * ECG | ||
* Bicarbonate level | * [[Bicarbonate]] level | ||
* Serum glucose | * Serum [[glucose]] | ||
* Serum Calcium | * Serum [[Calcium]] | ||
Depending on the history and results of the above mentioned tests,other tests that can be performed for evaluating the cause of hyperkalemia. | Depending on the history and results of the above mentioned tests,other tests that can be performed for evaluating the cause of hyperkalemia. | ||
* Digoxin level - If the patient is on a digitalis medication | * [[Digoxin]] level - If the patient is on a digitalis medication | ||
* Arterial or venous blood gas | * Arterial or venous [[Arterial blood gas|blood gas]] | ||
* Urinalysis | * Urinalysis | ||
* Serum | * Serum [[Cortisol|cortiso]]<nowiki/>l and [[aldosterone]] levels | ||
* Serum uric acid and phosphorus assays | * Serum [[uric acid]] and [[phosphorus]] assays | ||
* Serum creatinine phosphokinase (CPK) measurements | * Serum [[Creatine kinase|creatinine phosphokinase]] (CPK) measurements | ||
* Urine myoglobin test | * Urine [[myoglobin]] test | ||
=== Sequence of diagnostic studies === | === Sequence of diagnostic studies === | ||
| Line 60: | Line 60: | ||
* ECG-it denotes the urgency of the treatment. | * ECG-it denotes the urgency of the treatment. | ||
* Renal function test. | * Renal function test. | ||
**Serum BUN and creatinine are measured. | **Serum [[Blood urea nitrogen|BUN]] and creatinine are measured. | ||
**Since creatinine levels are dependent on muscle mass so GFR measurement is preferred. | **Since creatinine levels are dependent on muscle mass so [[Glomerular filtration rate|GFR]] measurement is preferred. | ||
* Urine potassium,sodium and osmolality measurement. | * Urine potassium,sodium and [[Osmolarity|osmolality]] measurement. | ||
**Urine potassium measurement. | **Urine potassium measurement. | ||
**Urine potassium <20meq/L denotes impaired excretion of potassium and denotes renal cause of hyperkalemia. | **Urine potassium <20meq/L denotes impaired excretion of potassium and denotes renal cause of hyperkalemia. | ||
**Urine potassium .40meq/L denotes adequate excretion of potassium and excludes renal cause of hyperkalemia. | **Urine potassium .40meq/L denotes adequate excretion of potassium and excludes renal cause of hyperkalemia. | ||
**Urine sodium <20meq/L denotes decreased sodium delivery to the distal tubules which decreases potassium secretion. | **Urine sodium <20meq/L denotes decreased [[sodium]] delivery to the distal tubules which decreases potassium secretion. | ||
**Urine osmolarity-measuring urine osmolarity is very important for accurate measurement of urine potassium as concenterated or dilute urine will alter the urine potassium concenteration. | **Urine osmolarity-measuring urine osmolarity is very important for accurate measurement of urine potassium as concenterated or dilute urine will alter the urine potassium concenteration. | ||
* Serum osmolarity. | * Serum osmolarity. | ||
**High serum osmolarity(>295 mosm/kg) may result in extracellular shift of potassium . | **High serum osmolarity(>295 mosm/kg) may result in extracellular shift of potassium . | ||
* Blood gas analysis .<ref name="pmid13242660">{{cite journal| author=SCRIBNER BH, FREMONT-SMITH K, BURNELL JM| title=The effect of acute respiratory acidosis on the internal equilibrium of potassium. | journal=J Clin Invest | year= 1955 | volume= 34 | issue= 8 | pages= 1276-85 | pmid=13242660 | doi=10.1172/JCI103174 | pmc=438696 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=13242660 }} </ref> | * Blood gas analysis .<ref name="pmid13242660">{{cite journal| author=SCRIBNER BH, FREMONT-SMITH K, BURNELL JM| title=The effect of acute respiratory acidosis on the internal equilibrium of potassium. | journal=J Clin Invest | year= 1955 | volume= 34 | issue= 8 | pages= 1276-85 | pmid=13242660 | doi=10.1172/JCI103174 | pmc=438696 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=13242660 }} </ref> | ||
**Decreased serum | **Decreased serum pH causes extracellular shift of potassium into the blood. | ||
* Transtubular Potassium gradient. | * Transtubular Potassium gradient. | ||
**It calculates the ratio of amount potassium in the collecting duct of kidneys with the amount of potassium in the peritubular capillaries. | **It calculates the ratio of amount potassium in the [[Collecting duct system|collecting duct]] of kidneys with the amount of potassium in the [[peritubular capillaries]]. | ||
**It indicates the activity of aldosterone on kidneys in regulation of potassium levels. | **It indicates the activity of [[aldosterone]] on kidneys in regulation of potassium levels. | ||
**TTG calculation-( Urine K+ | **TTG calculation-( Urine K<sup>+</sup> x Serum osmolarity)/(serum K<sup>+</sup> x Urine omolarity). | ||
**TTG <3 suggests lack of aldosterone effect on collecting ducts causing decreased excretion of potassium. | **TTG <3 suggests lack of [[aldosterone]] effect on [[Collecting duct system|collecting ducts]] causing decreased excretion of potassium. | ||
**TTG >7 suggest adequate effect of aldosterone in a case of hyperkalemia. | **TTG >7 suggest adequate effect of aldosterone in a case of hyperkalemia. | ||
**If TTG suggest aldosterone etiology then further testing done. | **If TTG suggest [[aldosterone]] etiology then further testing done. | ||
*Aldosterone levels | *Aldosterone levels | ||
*Renin levels <ref name="pmid2402122">{{cite journal| author=Conte G, Dal Canton A, Imperatore P, De Nicola L, Gigliotti G, Pisanti N et al.| title=Acute increase in plasma osmolality as a cause of hyperkalemia in patients with renal failure. | journal=Kidney Int | year= 1990 | volume= 38 | issue= 2 | pages= 301-7 | pmid=2402122 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2402122 }} </ref> | *Renin levels <ref name="pmid2402122">{{cite journal| author=Conte G, Dal Canton A, Imperatore P, De Nicola L, Gigliotti G, Pisanti N et al.| title=Acute increase in plasma osmolality as a cause of hyperkalemia in patients with renal failure. | journal=Kidney Int | year= 1990 | volume= 38 | issue= 2 | pages= 301-7 | pmid=2402122 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2402122 }} </ref> | ||
Revision as of 13:28, 13 July 2018
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Jogeet Singh Sekhon
Overview
Serum potassium is the gold standard test for the diagnosis of hyperkalemia. Pseudohyperkalemia needs to be ruled out whenever hyperkalemia is diagnosed. Pseudohyperkalemia is defined when serum potassium concentration exceeds that of plasma. Different etiologies of hyperkalemia can be assessed by using the diagnostic criteria.
Diagnostic Study of Choice
Study of choice
Serum potassium is the gold standard test for the diagnosis of hyperkalemia.[1]
There are two methods to determine serum potassium :
- Ion-specific electrode (ISE) potentiometry
ISE potentiometry has two different subtypes: direct (undiluted) and indirect (diluted).
- Direct ISE measures plasma potassium directly from a whole-blood sample and it's not associated with pseudohyperkalemia.
- FES or indirect ISE requires sample dilution before assay and both are associated with pseudohyperkalemia.
Pseudohyperkalemia
Pseudohyperkalemia is defined when serum potassium concentration exceeds that of plasma without any symptoms of hyperkalemia.
- It usually occurs when potassium moves out of cells during blood specimen collection or during centrifugation of the sample.
- Other causes are thrombocytosis, leukocytosis and erythrocytosis.
- To rule out pseudohyperkalemia we need to do the following :[2]
- Repeat the blood sample.
- Complete blood count to rule out thrombocytosis, erythrocytosis and leukocytosis.
- Measurement of plasma potassium and whole blood potassium.
Diagnostic results
The finding on performing the diagnostic test that confirms hyperkalemia
- Serum Potassium level more than 5.1 meq/L.
Common Diagnostic Studies
The serum potassium must be performed when:
- The patient presented with cardiac arrhythmias, weakness, fatigue and known case of chronic kidney disease. The following investigations must be performed :
- Blood pressure(to look for hypoaldosteronism)
- Complete blood count
- Renal function tests
- Urine potassium,sodium and osmolality
- Metabolic profile(other electrolytes)
- ECG
- Bicarbonate level
- Serum glucose
- Serum Calcium
Depending on the history and results of the above mentioned tests,other tests that can be performed for evaluating the cause of hyperkalemia.
- Digoxin level - If the patient is on a digitalis medication
- Arterial or venous blood gas
- Urinalysis
- Serum cortisol and aldosterone levels
- Serum uric acid and phosphorus assays
- Serum creatinine phosphokinase (CPK) measurements
- Urine myoglobin test
Sequence of diagnostic studies
- Serum Potassium measurement.
- ECG-it denotes the urgency of the treatment.
- Renal function test.
- Urine potassium,sodium and osmolality measurement.
- Urine potassium measurement.
- Urine potassium <20meq/L denotes impaired excretion of potassium and denotes renal cause of hyperkalemia.
- Urine potassium .40meq/L denotes adequate excretion of potassium and excludes renal cause of hyperkalemia.
- Urine sodium <20meq/L denotes decreased sodium delivery to the distal tubules which decreases potassium secretion.
- Urine osmolarity-measuring urine osmolarity is very important for accurate measurement of urine potassium as concenterated or dilute urine will alter the urine potassium concenteration.
- Serum osmolarity.
- High serum osmolarity(>295 mosm/kg) may result in extracellular shift of potassium .
- Blood gas analysis .[3]
- Decreased serum pH causes extracellular shift of potassium into the blood.
- Transtubular Potassium gradient.
- It calculates the ratio of amount potassium in the collecting duct of kidneys with the amount of potassium in the peritubular capillaries.
- It indicates the activity of aldosterone on kidneys in regulation of potassium levels.
- TTG calculation-( Urine K+ x Serum osmolarity)/(serum K+ x Urine omolarity).
- TTG <3 suggests lack of aldosterone effect on collecting ducts causing decreased excretion of potassium.
- TTG >7 suggest adequate effect of aldosterone in a case of hyperkalemia.
- If TTG suggest aldosterone etiology then further testing done.
- Aldosterone levels
- Renin levels [4]
Diagnostic criteria
| Potassium >5.1meq/L | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ECG | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| If no changes,rule out pseudohyperkalemia | If changes present then start urgent treatment | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Urine sodium <25 meq/L | urine sodium >25 meq/L | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ARF CKD Heart failure Volume depletion | Decreased K+secretion(Urine K+<20meq/L | Transcellular shift(measure serum osmolarity and pH) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Low aldosterone(TTG<3) | Normal aldosterone(TTG>7) | Diabetic ketoacidosis Metabolic acidosis | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Low renin | Normal renin | Tissue breakdown Pseudohypoaldosternism type 1 and type 2 Type 1 RTA | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Interstital nephritis Obstructive uropathies Diabetic nephropathy ACE inhibitors,Angiotensin 2 receptors | Primary hypoaldosteronism Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Aldosterone receptor antagonists RTA type 4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
References
- ↑ Lehnhardt A, Kemper MJ (2011). "Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of hyperkalemia". Pediatr Nephrol. 26 (3): 377–84. doi:10.1007/s00467-010-1699-3. PMC 3061004. PMID 21181208.
- ↑ Šálek T (2018). "Pseudohyperkalemia - Potassium released from cells due to clotting and centrifugation - a case report". Biochem Med (Zagreb). 28 (1): 011002. doi:10.11613/BM.2018.011002. PMC 5806620. PMID 29472808.
- ↑ SCRIBNER BH, FREMONT-SMITH K, BURNELL JM (1955). "The effect of acute respiratory acidosis on the internal equilibrium of potassium". J Clin Invest. 34 (8): 1276–85. doi:10.1172/JCI103174. PMC 438696. PMID 13242660.
- ↑ Conte G, Dal Canton A, Imperatore P, De Nicola L, Gigliotti G, Pisanti N; et al. (1990). "Acute increase in plasma osmolality as a cause of hyperkalemia in patients with renal failure". Kidney Int. 38 (2): 301–7. PMID 2402122.