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==Overview==
==Overview==
'''''Plasmodium knowlesi''''' is a simian parasite That cause malaria; the natural hosts are macaques.<ref name="pmid29011028">{{cite journal |vauthors=Napier LE, Campbell HGM |title=Observations on a Plasmodium Infection Which Causes Hæmoglobinuria in Certain Species of Monkey |journal=Ind Med Gaz |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=246–249 |date=May 1932 |pmid=29011028 |pmc=5231784 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  Human cases of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria have been reported throughout the Southeast Asia; most cases have been reported from Malaysia, particularly the eastern Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.<ref name="pmid27494405">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shearer FM, Huang Z, Weiss DJ, Wiebe A, Gibson HS, Battle KE, Pigott DM, Brady OJ, Putaporntip C, Jongwutiwes S, Lau YL, Manske M, Amato R, Elyazar IR, Vythilingam I, Bhatt S, Gething PW, Singh B, Golding N, Hay SI, Moyes CL |title=Estimating Geographical Variation in the Risk of Zoonotic Plasmodium knowlesi Infection in Countries Eliminating Malaria |journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=e0004915 |date=August 2016 |pmid=27494405 |pmc=4975412 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004915 |url=}}</ref> this malaria is generally acquired in forest or forest-fringe areas; those at risk include farmers, plantation workers, and individuals undertaking other activities in forested areas  
'''''Plasmodium knowlesi''''' is a simian parasite that cause malaria; the natural hosts are macaques.<ref name="pmid29011028">{{cite journal |vauthors=Napier LE, Campbell HGM |title=Observations on a Plasmodium Infection Which Causes Hæmoglobinuria in Certain Species of Monkey |journal=Ind Med Gaz |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=246–249 |date=May 1932 |pmid=29011028 |pmc=5231784 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  Human cases of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria have been reported throughout the Southeast Asia; most cases have been reported from Malaysia, particularly the eastern Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.<ref name="pmid27494405">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shearer FM, Huang Z, Weiss DJ, Wiebe A, Gibson HS, Battle KE, Pigott DM, Brady OJ, Putaporntip C, Jongwutiwes S, Lau YL, Manske M, Amato R, Elyazar IR, Vythilingam I, Bhatt S, Gething PW, Singh B, Golding N, Hay SI, Moyes CL |title=Estimating Geographical Variation in the Risk of Zoonotic Plasmodium knowlesi Infection in Countries Eliminating Malaria |journal=PLoS Negl Trop Dis |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=e0004915 |date=August 2016 |pmid=27494405 |pmc=4975412 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004915 |url=}}</ref> this malaria is generally acquired in forest or forest-fringe areas; those at risk include farmers, plantation workers, and individuals undertaking other activities in forested areas. Adult population is commonly affected more than children and the mortality increases as the age increases. <ref name="pmid29873683">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grigg MJ, William T, Barber BE, Rajahram GS, Menon J, Schimann E, Piera K, Wilkes CS, Patel K, Chandna A, Drakeley CJ, Yeo TW, Anstey NM |title=Age-Related Clinical Spectrum of Plasmodium knowlesi Malaria and Predictors of Severity |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=350–359 |date=July 2018 |pmid=29873683 |pmc=6051457 |doi=10.1093/cid/ciy065 |url=}}</ref>


==Epidemiology==
==Epidemiology==

Revision as of 17:17, 8 November 2018

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Marjan Khan M.B.B.S.[2]

Plasmodium knowlesi
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Protista
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Aconoidasida
Order: Haemosporida
Family: Plasmodiidae
Genus: Plasmodium
Species: P. knowlesi
Binomial name
Plasmodium knowlesi

Overview

Plasmodium knowlesi is a simian parasite that cause malaria; the natural hosts are macaques.[1] Human cases of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria have been reported throughout the Southeast Asia; most cases have been reported from Malaysia, particularly the eastern Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.[2] this malaria is generally acquired in forest or forest-fringe areas; those at risk include farmers, plantation workers, and individuals undertaking other activities in forested areas. Adult population is commonly affected more than children and the mortality increases as the age increases. [3]

Epidemiology

  • Reports of human P. knowlesi infections are confined to Southeast Asia,[4][5] particularly Malaysia,[6] but there are also reports on the Thai-Burmese border.[7] A fifth of the cases of malaria diagnosed in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo are due to P. knowlesi.[6]
  • P. knowlesi infection is normally considered an infection of long-tailed (Macaca fascicularis) and pig-tailed (M. nemestrina) macaques, but humans who work at the forest fringe or enter the rainforest to work are at risk of being infected with P. knowlesi.
  • The mosquito Anopheles latens is attracted to both macaques and humans and has been shown to be the main vector transmitting P. knowlesi to humans in the Kapit Division of Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo[8]. Within the monkey population in Peninsular Malaysia, A. hackeri, is believed to be the main vector of 'P. knowlesi' : although 'A. hackeri' is capable of transmitting malaria to humans,[9] it is not normally attracted to humans and therefore cannot be an important vector for transmission.[10]

Diagnosis

  • P. knowlesi infections is diagnosed by examining thick and thin blood films in the same way as other malarias.
  • The appearance of P. knowlesi is similar to that of P. malariae and is unlikely to be correctly diagnosed except by using molecular detection assays [6]
  • Reporting of P. knowlesi as the more benign P. malariae has been associated with failure to recognize severe malaria and consequent delayed initiation of parenteral therapy, with fatal outcomes.

Treatment

P. knowlesi infection responds well to treatment with chloroquine and primaquine.[6]

Plasmodium knowlesi genome data

References

  1. ↑ Napier LE, Campbell H (May 1932). "Observations on a Plasmodium Infection Which Causes Hæmoglobinuria in Certain Species of Monkey". Ind Med Gaz. 67 (5): 246–249. PMC 5231784. PMID 29011028. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  2. ↑ Shearer FM, Huang Z, Weiss DJ, Wiebe A, Gibson HS, Battle KE, Pigott DM, Brady OJ, Putaporntip C, Jongwutiwes S, Lau YL, Manske M, Amato R, Elyazar IR, Vythilingam I, Bhatt S, Gething PW, Singh B, Golding N, Hay SI, Moyes CL (August 2016). "Estimating Geographical Variation in the Risk of Zoonotic Plasmodium knowlesi Infection in Countries Eliminating Malaria". PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 10 (8): e0004915. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0004915. PMC 4975412. PMID 27494405.
  3. ↑ Grigg MJ, William T, Barber BE, Rajahram GS, Menon J, Schimann E, Piera K, Wilkes CS, Patel K, Chandna A, Drakeley CJ, Yeo TW, Anstey NM (July 2018). "Age-Related Clinical Spectrum of Plasmodium knowlesi Malaria and Predictors of Severity". Clin. Infect. Dis. 67 (3): 350–359. doi:10.1093/cid/ciy065. PMC 6051457. PMID 29873683.
  4. ↑ Chin W, Contacos PG, Coatney RG, Kimbal HR. (1965). "A naturally acquired quotidian-type malaria in man transferable to monkeys". Science. 149: 865. PMID 14332847.
  5. ↑ Yap FL, Cadigan FC, Coatney GR. (1971). "A presumptive case of naturally occurring Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in man in Malaysia". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 65 (6): 839&ndash, 40. PMID 5003320.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Singh B, Lee KS, Matusop A, Radhakrishnan A, Shamsul SSG, Cox-Singh J, Thomas A, Conway DJ (2004). "A large focus of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human beings". Lancet. 363: 1017&ndash, 24. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15836-4.
  7. ↑ Jongwutiwes S, Putaporntip C, Iwasaki T, Sata T, Kanbara H. (2004). "Naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in human, Thailand". Emerg Infect Dis. 10 (12): 2211&ndash, 3. PMID 15663864.
  8. ↑ Vythilingam I, Tan CH, Asmad M, Chan ST, Lee KS, Singh B. (2006). "Natural transmission of Plasmodium knowlesi to humans by Anopheles latens in Sarawak, Malaysia". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 100: 1087&ndash, 88. doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.02.006.
  9. ↑ Wharton RH, Eyles DE. (1961). "Anopheles hackeri, a vector of Plasmodium knowlesi in Malaya". Science. 134: 279&ndash, 80.
  10. ↑ Reid JA, Weitz B. (1961). "Anopheline mosquitoes as vectors of animal malaria in Malaya". Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 55: 180&ndash, 6.

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