Rhabdomyosarcoma differential diagnosis: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Rhabdomyosarcoma must be differentiated from [[ | Rhabdomyosarcoma must be differentiated from [[wilms tumor]], [[ewing sarcoma]], [[neuroblastoma]], [[pheochromocytoma]], [[liposarcoma]], [[osteosarcoma]], acute myelocystic leukemia, [[acute lymphoblastic leukemia]], and non-hodgkin lymphoma. They mostly differentiated by their [[signs]], [[symptoms]], and [[imaging]] findings. The [[Gold standard (test)|gold standard]] of [[diagnosis]] is usually [[tissue]] [[biopsy]]. | ||
==Differential Diagnosis== | ==Differential Diagnosis== | ||
Line 242: | Line 242: | ||
* [[Necrosis]] | * [[Necrosis]] | ||
* [[Cystic]] changes | * [[Cystic]] changes | ||
[[MRI]] (in extra adrenal [[tumors]]): | [[MRI]] (in extra [[adrenal]] [[tumors]]): | ||
*[[T1]]: | *[[T1]]: | ||
** Heterogenous enhancement | ** Heterogenous enhancement | ||
Line 251: | Line 251: | ||
** Heterogenous enhancement | ** Heterogenous enhancement | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | ||
* Zellballen pattern on microscopy | * Zellballen pattern on [[microscopy]] | ||
* Well-defined clusters | * Well-defined clusters | ||
* Eosinophilic cytoplasm | * [[Eosinophilic]] [[cytoplasm]] | ||
Positive stains for: | Positive stains for: | ||
* Chromogranin for zellballlen cells | * [[Chromogranin]] for zellballlen [[Cells (biology)|cells]] | ||
* Neurospecific enolase markers for neuronal cells | * Neurospecific [[enolase]] markers for [[neuronal]] [[Cells (biology)|cells]] | ||
* S-100 protein for sustentacular cells | * [[S-100 protein|S-100]] [[protein]] for [[Sustentacular cell|sustentacular]] [[Cells (biology)|cells]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" |[[Pediatric]] [[osteosarcoma]]<ref name="pmid8000997">{{cite journal| author=Dorfman HD, Czerniak B| title=Bone cancers. | journal=Cancer | year= 1995 | volume= 75 | issue= 1 Suppl | pages= 203-10 | pmid=8000997 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8000997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21071381">{{cite journal| author=Yarmish G, Klein MJ, Landa J, Lefkowitz RA, Hwang S| title=Imaging characteristics of primary osteosarcoma: nonconventional subtypes. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2010 | volume= 30 | issue= 6 | pages= 1653-72 | pmid=21071381 | doi=10.1148/rg.306105524 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21071381 }}</ref><ref name="pmid1884549">{{cite journal| author=Araki N, Uchida A, Kimura T, Yoshikawa H, Aoki Y, Ueda T et al.| title=Involvement of the retinoblastoma gene in primary osteosarcomas and other bone and soft-tissue tumors. | journal=Clin Orthop Relat Res | year= 1991 | volume= | issue= 270 | pages= 271-7 | pmid=1884549 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1884549 }}</ref> | ! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" |[[Pediatric]] [[osteosarcoma]]<ref name="pmid8000997">{{cite journal| author=Dorfman HD, Czerniak B| title=Bone cancers. | journal=Cancer | year= 1995 | volume= 75 | issue= 1 Suppl | pages= 203-10 | pmid=8000997 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8000997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21071381">{{cite journal| author=Yarmish G, Klein MJ, Landa J, Lefkowitz RA, Hwang S| title=Imaging characteristics of primary osteosarcoma: nonconventional subtypes. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2010 | volume= 30 | issue= 6 | pages= 1653-72 | pmid=21071381 | doi=10.1148/rg.306105524 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21071381 }}</ref><ref name="pmid1884549">{{cite journal| author=Araki N, Uchida A, Kimura T, Yoshikawa H, Aoki Y, Ueda T et al.| title=Involvement of the retinoblastoma gene in primary osteosarcomas and other bone and soft-tissue tumors. | journal=Clin Orthop Relat Res | year= 1991 | volume= | issue= 270 | pages= 271-7 | pmid=1884549 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1884549 }}</ref> | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | ||
* The second most common primary bone tumor | * The second most common primary [[bone]] [[tumor]] | ||
* The third most common tumor among adolescents | * The third most common [[tumor]] among adolescents | ||
* Can be primary or secondary | * Can be primary or secondary | ||
* Primary osteosarcoma occurs in age of 10-20 years old | * Primary [[osteosarcoma]] occurs in [[age]] of 10-20 years old | ||
* Secondary osteosarcoma occurs in older patients and is secondary to paget disease and bone infarcts | * Secondary [[osteosarcoma]] occurs in older [[patients]] and is secondary to [[paget disease]] and [[bone]] infarcts | ||
* Accompanied with positive history of trauma | * Accompanied with positive history of [[trauma]] | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | + | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | + | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | + | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | + | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | ||
* Soft tissue swelling | * [[Soft tissue]] [[swelling]] | ||
* Fracture | * [[Fracture]] | ||
* Night sweating | * [[Night Sweats|Night]] [[sweating]] | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | + | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | + | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | ||
* Mass swelling | * [[Mass]] [[swelling]] | ||
* Fever | * [[Fever]] | ||
* Arthritis | * [[Arthritis]] | ||
* Decreased joint range of motion | * Decreased [[joint]] [[range of motion]] | ||
* Lymphadenopathy | * [[Lymphadenopathy]] | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | ||
* Alteration in retinoblastoma gene (Rb) | * Alteration in [[retinoblastoma]] [[gene]] ([[Rb]]) | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" |[[Radiography]]: | ||
* Osteolytic/ osteoblastic feature | * [[Osteolytic metasteses|Osteolytic]]/ [[Osteoblastic osteosarcoma|osteoblastic]] feature | ||
* Periosteum reaction | * [[Periosteum]] reaction | ||
* Calcification or ossification | * [[Calcification]] or [[ossification]] | ||
CT scan: | [[CT scan]]: | ||
* Primary lesion and chest CT are required | * Primary [[lesion]] and [[chest]] [[CT]] are required | ||
* Demonstrate tumor location and extension | * Demonstrate [[tumor]] location and [[extension]] | ||
MRI: | [[MRI]]: | ||
* Exact assessment of tumor extension | * Exact assessment of [[tumor]] [[extension]] | ||
* Involving joint to joint findings | * Involving [[joint]] to [[joint]] findings | ||
| align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | | align="left" style="background:#F5F5F5;" | | ||
* Contain various cellular pleomorphism and mitoses | * Contain various [[cellular]] [[pleomorphism]] and [[mitoses]] | ||
* Poorly trabecular bone formation | * Poorly [[Trabecular bone|trabecular]] [[bone]] formation | ||
* Fibrocystic and chondroblastic features | * [[Fibrocystic Disease|Fibrocystic]] and chondroblastic features | ||
|- | |- | ||
! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" |Pediatric liposarcoma<ref name="pmid6861094">{{cite journal| author=Shmookler BM, Enzinger FM| title=Liposarcoma occurring in children. An analysis of 17 cases and review of the literature. | journal=Cancer | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 3 | pages= 567-74 | pmid=6861094 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6861094 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9386667">{{cite journal| author=Marcus KC, Grier HE, Shamberger RC, Gebhardt MC, Perez-Atayde A, Silver B et al.| title=Childhood soft tissue sarcoma: a 20-year experience. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 1997 | volume= 131 | issue= 4 | pages= 603-7 | pmid=9386667 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9386667 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16160117">{{cite journal| author=Murphey MD, Arcara LK, Fanburg-Smith J| title=From the archives of the AFIP: imaging of musculoskeletal liposarcoma with radiologic-pathologic correlation. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2005 | volume= 25 | issue= 5 | pages= 1371-95 | pmid=16160117 | doi=10.1148/rg.255055106 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16160117 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17372913">{{cite journal| author=Italiano A, Cardot N, Dupré F, Monticelli I, Keslair F, Piche M et al.| title=Gains and complex rearrangements of the 12q13-15 chromosomal region in ordinary lipomas: the "missing link" between lipomas and liposarcomas? | journal=Int J Cancer | year= 2007 | volume= 121 | issue= 2 | pages= 308-15 | pmid=17372913 | doi=10.1002/ijc.22685 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17372913 }}</ref> | ! align="center" style="background:#DCDCDC;" |Pediatric liposarcoma<ref name="pmid6861094">{{cite journal| author=Shmookler BM, Enzinger FM| title=Liposarcoma occurring in children. An analysis of 17 cases and review of the literature. | journal=Cancer | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 3 | pages= 567-74 | pmid=6861094 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6861094 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9386667">{{cite journal| author=Marcus KC, Grier HE, Shamberger RC, Gebhardt MC, Perez-Atayde A, Silver B et al.| title=Childhood soft tissue sarcoma: a 20-year experience. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 1997 | volume= 131 | issue= 4 | pages= 603-7 | pmid=9386667 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9386667 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16160117">{{cite journal| author=Murphey MD, Arcara LK, Fanburg-Smith J| title=From the archives of the AFIP: imaging of musculoskeletal liposarcoma with radiologic-pathologic correlation. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2005 | volume= 25 | issue= 5 | pages= 1371-95 | pmid=16160117 | doi=10.1148/rg.255055106 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16160117 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17372913">{{cite journal| author=Italiano A, Cardot N, Dupré F, Monticelli I, Keslair F, Piche M et al.| title=Gains and complex rearrangements of the 12q13-15 chromosomal region in ordinary lipomas: the "missing link" between lipomas and liposarcomas? | journal=Int J Cancer | year= 2007 | volume= 121 | issue= 2 | pages= 308-15 | pmid=17372913 | doi=10.1002/ijc.22685 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17372913 }}</ref> |
Revision as of 15:39, 6 March 2019

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1];Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Shadan Mehraban, M.D.[2]
Overview
Rhabdomyosarcoma must be differentiated from wilms tumor, ewing sarcoma, neuroblastoma, pheochromocytoma, liposarcoma, osteosarcoma, acute myelocystic leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and non-hodgkin lymphoma. They mostly differentiated by their signs, symptoms, and imaging findings. The gold standard of diagnosis is usually tissue biopsy.
Differential Diagnosis
- Rhabdomyosarcoma must be differentiated from following diseases:
Disease | History/demography | Symptoms | Physical examination | Diagnosis | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Palpable mass | Pain | Others | Mass tenderness | Others | Genetics | Imaging | Histology | |||
Rhabdomyosarcoma[1][2][3][4] |
|
+ | + |
|
+/- |
Mutations in: |
CT scan:
MRI:
|
| ||
Wilms tumor[5][6][7][8][9] |
|
+ | + |
|
+/- | Present mutations of: | Ultrasound:
|
| ||
Ewing sarcoma[10][11][12][13] |
|
+ | + | + |
|
Radiographic of region:
MRI:
|
| |||
Pediatric neuroblastoma [14][15][16][17] |
Age distribution:
|
+ (Abdominal) |
+ |
+(Abdominal) |
CT scan:
MRI:
|
| ||||
Pediatric pheochromocytoma[18][19][20][21] |
|
- | +/- | - | Genetic mutation in: | Ultrasound:
|
Positive stains for:
| |||
Pediatric osteosarcoma[22][23][24] |
|
+ | + | + |
|
|
Radiography:
MRI: |
| ||
Pediatric liposarcoma[25][26][27][28] | Considered as a nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas
One of the least frequent tumors during childhood Rarely seen in adolescents and age of < 8 years old Average age is 50 years among adults Occur mostly in lower extremities, retroperitoneal region, and shoulder |
+ | +/- |
|
- |
|
|
CT scan:
MRI:
|
Divided into following subtypes:
Common findings:
| |
Pediatric acute myelocystic leukemia[29][30][31][32] |
|
+/- ( Abdominal mass, mediastinal mass) | + (bone pain, joint pain) |
|
+/- |
|
Genetic translocations include:
|
Radiography:
CT scan/ MRI:
Radionuclide imaging:
|
| |
Pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia[33][34] |
|
+/-( Extramedullary masses in abdomen/ head/neck) |
+/- (Musculoskeletal pain) |
|
- |
|
Chromosomal translocations:
|
Radiography:
Chest x ray:
Bone x ray:
Brain MRI:
|
Divided into 3 subgroups:
L1:
L2:
L3:
| |
Pediatric non-hodgkin lymphoma[35][36][37] |
|
+ | - |
|
+ (Chest tenderness) | Fever
Hepatosplenomegaly Lymphadenopathy Seizure Petechiae |
Radiography:
CT scan:
Ultrasound:
|
Histology findings of non-hodgkin lymphoma depend on:
|
References
- ↑ Egas-Bejar D, Huh WW (2014). "Rhabdomyosarcoma in adolescent and young adult patients: current perspectives". Adolesc Health Med Ther. 5: 115–25. doi:10.2147/AHMT.S44582. PMC 4069040. PMID 24966711.
- ↑ Dasgupta R, Fuchs J, Rodeberg D (2016). "Rhabdomyosarcoma". Semin Pediatr Surg. 25 (5): 276–283. doi:10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2016.09.011. PMID 27955730.
- ↑ Park K, van Rijn R, McHugh K (2008). "The role of radiology in paediatric soft tissue sarcomas". Cancer Imaging. 8: 102–15. doi:10.1102/1470-7330.2008.0014. PMC 2365455. PMID 18442956.
- ↑ Shern JF, Yohe ME, Khan J (2015). "Pediatric Rhabdomyosarcoma". Crit Rev Oncog. 20 (3–4): 227–43. PMC 5486973. PMID 26349418.
- ↑ Hartman DS, Sanders RC (April 1982). "Wilms' tumor versus neuroblastoma: usefulness of ultrasound in differentiation". J Ultrasound Med. 1 (3): 117–22. PMID 6152936.
- ↑ De Campo JF (1986). "Ultrasound of Wilms' tumor". Pediatr Radiol. 16 (1): 21–4. PMID 3003660.
- ↑ Cahan LD (1985). "Failure of encephalo-duro-arterio-synangiosis procedure in moyamoya disease". Pediatr Neurosci. 12 (1): 58–62. PMID 4080660.
- ↑ Coppes MJ, Pritchard-Jones K (2000). "Principles of Wilms' tumor biology". Urol Clin North Am. 27 (3): 423–33, viii. PMID 10985142.
- ↑ Davidoff AM (2012). "Wilms tumor". Adv Pediatr. 59 (1): 247–67. doi:10.1016/j.yapd.2012.04.001. PMC 3589819. PMID 22789581.
- ↑ Burchill SA (2003). "Ewing's sarcoma: diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic implications of molecular abnormalities". J Clin Pathol. 56 (2): 96–102. PMC 1769883. PMID 12560386.
- ↑ Maygarden SJ, Askin FB, Siegal GP, Gilula LA, Schoppe J, Foulkes M; et al. (1993). "Ewing sarcoma of bone in infants and toddlers. A clinicopathologic report from the Intergroup Ewing's Study". Cancer. 71 (6): 2109–18. PMID 8443760.
- ↑ Panicek DM, Gatsonis C, Rosenthal DI, Seeger LL, Huvos AG, Moore SG; et al. (1997). "CT and MR imaging in the local staging of primary malignant musculoskeletal neoplasms: Report of the Radiology Diagnostic Oncology Group". Radiology. 202 (1): 237–46. doi:10.1148/radiology.202.1.8988217. PMID 8988217.
- ↑ Grünewald TGP, Cidre-Aranaz F, Surdez D, Tomazou EM, de Álava E, Kovar H; et al. (2018). "Ewing sarcoma". Nat Rev Dis Primers. 4 (1): 5. doi:10.1038/s41572-018-0003-x. PMID 29977059.
- ↑ Lonergan GJ, Schwab CM, Suarez ES, Carlson CL (2002). "Neuroblastoma, ganglioneuroblastoma, and ganglioneuroma: radiologic-pathologic correlation". Radiographics. 22 (4): 911–34. doi:10.1148/radiographics.22.4.g02jl15911. PMID 12110723.
- ↑ Golden CB, Feusner JH (2002). "Malignant abdominal masses in children: quick guide to evaluation and diagnosis". Pediatr Clin North Am. 49 (6): 1369–92, viii. PMID 12580370.
- ↑ Angstman KB, Miser JS, Franz WB (1990). "Neuroblastoma". Am Fam Physician. 41 (1): 238–44. PMID 2403727.
- ↑ Musarella MA, Chan HS, DeBoer G, Gallie BL (1984). "Ocular involvement in neuroblastoma: prognostic implications". Ophthalmology. 91 (8): 936–40. PMID 6493702.
- ↑ Leung K, Stamm M, Raja A, Low G (2013). "Pheochromocytoma: the range of appearances on ultrasound, CT, MRI, and functional imaging". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 200 (2): 370–8. doi:10.2214/AJR.12.9126. PMID 23345359.
- ↑ Stein PP, Black HR (1991). "A simplified diagnostic approach to pheochromocytoma. A review of the literature and report of one institution's experience". Medicine (Baltimore). 70 (1): 46–66. PMID 1988766.
- ↑ Bravo EL (1991). "Pheochromocytoma: new concepts and future trends". Kidney Int. 40 (3): 544–56. PMID 1787652.
- ↑ Bravo EL (1991). "Pheochromocytoma: new concepts and future trends". Kidney Int. 40 (3): 544–56. PMID 1787652.
- ↑ Dorfman HD, Czerniak B (1995). "Bone cancers". Cancer. 75 (1 Suppl): 203–10. PMID 8000997.
- ↑ Yarmish G, Klein MJ, Landa J, Lefkowitz RA, Hwang S (2010). "Imaging characteristics of primary osteosarcoma: nonconventional subtypes". Radiographics. 30 (6): 1653–72. doi:10.1148/rg.306105524. PMID 21071381.
- ↑ Araki N, Uchida A, Kimura T, Yoshikawa H, Aoki Y, Ueda T; et al. (1991). "Involvement of the retinoblastoma gene in primary osteosarcomas and other bone and soft-tissue tumors". Clin Orthop Relat Res (270): 271–7. PMID 1884549.
- ↑ Shmookler BM, Enzinger FM (1983). "Liposarcoma occurring in children. An analysis of 17 cases and review of the literature". Cancer. 52 (3): 567–74. PMID 6861094.
- ↑ Marcus KC, Grier HE, Shamberger RC, Gebhardt MC, Perez-Atayde A, Silver B; et al. (1997). "Childhood soft tissue sarcoma: a 20-year experience". J Pediatr. 131 (4): 603–7. PMID 9386667.
- ↑ Murphey MD, Arcara LK, Fanburg-Smith J (2005). "From the archives of the AFIP: imaging of musculoskeletal liposarcoma with radiologic-pathologic correlation". Radiographics. 25 (5): 1371–95. doi:10.1148/rg.255055106. PMID 16160117.
- ↑ Italiano A, Cardot N, Dupré F, Monticelli I, Keslair F, Piche M; et al. (2007). "Gains and complex rearrangements of the 12q13-15 chromosomal region in ordinary lipomas: the "missing link" between lipomas and liposarcomas?". Int J Cancer. 121 (2): 308–15. doi:10.1002/ijc.22685. PMID 17372913.
- ↑ Yamamoto JF, Goodman MT (2008). "Patterns of leukemia incidence in the United States by subtype and demographic characteristics, 1997-2002". Cancer Causes Control. 19 (4): 379–90. doi:10.1007/s10552-007-9097-2. PMID 18064533.
- ↑ Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network. Ley TJ, Miller C, Ding L, Raphael BJ, Mungall AJ; et al. (2013). "Genomic and epigenomic landscapes of adult de novo acute myeloid leukemia". N Engl J Med. 368 (22): 2059–74. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1301689. PMC 3767041. PMID 23634996.
- ↑ Islam A, Catovsky D, Goldman JM, Galton DA (1985). "Bone marrow biopsy changes in acute myeloid leukaemia. I: Observations before chemotherapy". Histopathology. 9 (9): 939–57. PMID 3864727.
- ↑ Orazi A (2007). "Histopathology in the diagnosis and classification of acute myeloid leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, and myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative diseases". Pathobiology. 74 (2): 97–114. doi:10.1159/000101709. PMID 17587881.
- ↑ Zuckerman T, Rowe JM (2014). "Pathogenesis and prognostication in acute lymphoblastic leukemia". F1000Prime Rep. 6: 59. doi:10.12703/P6-59. PMC 4108947. PMID 25184049.
- ↑ Pui CH, Robison LL, Look AT (2008). "Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia". Lancet. 371 (9617): 1030–43. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60457-2. PMID 18358930.
- ↑ Green MR, Gentles AJ, Nair RV, Irish JM, Kihira S, Liu CL; et al. (2013). "Hierarchy in somatic mutations arising during genomic evolution and progression of follicular lymphoma". Blood. 121 (9): 1604–11. doi:10.1182/blood-2012-09-457283. PMC 3587323. PMID 23297126.
- ↑ Sandlund JT (2015). "Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma in Children". Curr Hematol Malig Rep. 10 (3): 237–43. doi:10.1007/s11899-015-0277-y. PMID 26174528.
- ↑ El-Galaly TC, Hutchings M (2015). "Imaging of non-Hodgkin lymphomas: diagnosis and response-adapted strategies". Cancer Treat Res. 165: 125–46. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13150-4_5. PMID 25655608.