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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
'''For patient information, click [[Paraneoplastic syndrome (patient information)|here]]'''
'''PCFor patient information, click [[Paraneoplastic syndrome (patient information)|here]]'''
{{Paraneoplastic syndrome}}
{{Paraneoplastic syndrome}}


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==Overview==
==Overview==
'''Paraneoplastic syndromes''' are rare type of [[diseases]] that are caused by abnormal [[immune]] systems resulting from [[cancerous]] cells. Paraneoplastic syndromes are [[disorders]] due to released of [[hormones]], peptitdes then [[immune]] cross-reactivity between [[cancerous]] [[cells]] and normal [[tissues]]. Sometimes the [[symptoms]] of paraneoplastic syndromes show even before the [[diagnosis]] of a [[Malignant|malignancy]].There is no [[screening]] for paraneoplastic syndromes. The stage and type of the diagnosis of the [[cancer]] determine the [[prognosis]] of a paraneoplastic syndrome. The [[causes]] are mostly related to organ affected. The classification of the paraneoplastic syndromes is divided into four main categories such as [[mucocutaneous]], [[neurological]], [[hematological]] and [[Endocrine|endocrines]].The are no cures for paraneoplastic syndrome, but [[cancer]] treatment and some [[medications]] to reduce [[Autoimmunity|autoimmune]] responses are helpful.
'''Paraneoplastic syndromes''' are a rare type of [[diseases|disease]] that is caused by abnormal [[immune]] systems resulting from [[cancerous]] cells. Paraneoplastic syndromes are [[disorders]] due to the release of [[hormones]], or peptides that cause [[immune]] cross-reactivity between [[cancerous]] [[cells]] and normal [[tissues]]. Sometimes the [[symptoms]] of paraneoplastic syndromes show even before the [[diagnosis]] of a [[Malignant|malignancy]]. There is no [[screening]] for paraneoplastic syndromes. The stage and type of diagnosis of [[cancer]] determine the [[prognosis]] of a paraneoplastic syndrome. The [[causes]] are mostly related to the organ affected. The paraneoplastic syndromes are divided into four main categories such as [[musculocutaneous]], [[neurological]], [[hematological]] and [[Endocrine|endocrines]]. They are no cures for the paraneoplastic syndrome, but [[cancer]] treatment and some [[medications]] to reduce [[Autoimmunity|autoimmune]] responses are helpful.
==Classification==
==Classification==
* Paraneoplastic syndromes may be [[Classification|classified]] into 4 main categories:
* Paraneoplastic syndromes may be [[Classification|classified]] into 4 main categories:
**[[Endocrine|Endocrine metabolic]] [[Syndrome|syndromes]]:<ref>{{MeshName|Paraneoplastic+endocrine+syndromes}}</ref><ref name="pmid15673803">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stewart AF |title=Clinical practice. Hypercalcemia associated with cancer |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=352 |issue=4 |pages=373–9 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15673803 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp042806 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16337807">{{cite journal |vauthors=Spinazzé S, Schrijvers D |title=Metabolic emergencies |journal=Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=79–89 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337807 |doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2005.04.004 |url=}}</ref>
**[[Endocrine|Endocrine metabolic]] [[Syndrome|syndromes]]:<ref>{{MeshName|Paraneoplastic+endocrine+syndromes}}</ref><ref name="pmid15673803">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stewart AF |title=Clinical practice. Hypercalcemia associated with cancer |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=352 |issue=4 |pages=373–9 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15673803 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp042806 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16337807">{{cite journal |vauthors=Spinazzé S, Schrijvers D |title=Metabolic emergencies |journal=Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=79–89 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337807 |doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2005.04.004 |url=}}</ref>
***[[Hypercalcemia]] in [[breast cancer]] and [[lung cancer]] (typically squamous cell) due to the production of [[Parathyroid hormone-related protein|PTHrP]] ([[Parathyroid hormone]]-related [[protein]])
***[[Hypercalcemia]] in [[breast cancer]] and [[lung cancer]] (typically [[Squamous cell carcinoma|squamous cell]]) due to the production of [[Parathyroid hormone-related protein|PTHrP]] ([[Parathyroid hormone]]-related [[protein]])
****Seen in multiple [[myeloma]], [[renal cell carcinoma]], [[ovarian cancer]], [[endometrial cancer]], and [[lymphoma]]
****Seen in [[multiple myeloma]], [[renal cell carcinoma]], [[ovarian cancer]], [[endometrial cancer]], and [[lymphoma]]
***[[Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone|SIADH]]<ref name="pmid17701059">{{cite journal |vauthors=Raftopoulos H |title=Diagnosis and management of hyponatremia in cancer patients |journal=Support Care Cancer |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1341–7 |date=December 2007 |pmid=17701059 |doi=10.1007/s00520-007-0309-9 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17507705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ellison DH, Berl T |title=Clinical practice. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=356 |issue=20 |pages=2064–72 |date=May 2007 |pmid=17507705 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp066837 |url=}}</ref>
***[[Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone|SIADH]]<ref name="pmid17701059">{{cite journal |vauthors=Raftopoulos H |title=Diagnosis and management of hyponatremia in cancer patients |journal=Support Care Cancer |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1341–7 |date=December 2007 |pmid=17701059 |doi=10.1007/s00520-007-0309-9 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17507705">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ellison DH, Berl T |title=Clinical practice. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=356 |issue=20 |pages=2064–72 |date=May 2007 |pmid=17507705 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp066837 |url=}}</ref>
****Associated [[Cancer|cancers]]: [[small cell lung cancer]], [[mesothelioma]], [[breast]], [[prostate]], [[adrenal]], [[urethral]], [[thymoma]], [[lymphoma]], GI, CNS, and [[Ewing sarcoma]]
****Associated [[Cancer|cancers]]: [[small cell lung cancer]], [[mesothelioma]], [[breast]], [[prostate]], [[adrenal]], [[urethral]], [[thymoma]], [[lymphoma]], GI, CNS, and [[Ewing sarcoma]]
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***[[Autonomic neuropathy]]
***[[Autonomic neuropathy]]
**[[Hematological]] paraneoplastic syndromes <ref name="pmid9208888">{{cite journal |author=Staszewski H |title=Hematological paraneoplastic syndromes |journal=Semin. Oncol. |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=329–33 |year=1997 |pmid=9208888 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8400277">{{cite journal |vauthors=Blay JY, Favrot M, Rossi JF, Wijdenes J |title=Role of interleukin-6 in paraneoplastic thrombocytosis |journal=Blood |volume=82 |issue=7 |pages=2261–2 |date=October 1993 |pmid=8400277 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
**[[Hematological]] paraneoplastic syndromes <ref name="pmid9208888">{{cite journal |author=Staszewski H |title=Hematological paraneoplastic syndromes |journal=Semin. Oncol. |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=329–33 |year=1997 |pmid=9208888 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8400277">{{cite journal |vauthors=Blay JY, Favrot M, Rossi JF, Wijdenes J |title=Role of interleukin-6 in paraneoplastic thrombocytosis |journal=Blood |volume=82 |issue=7 |pages=2261–2 |date=October 1993 |pmid=8400277 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*** [[Granulocytosis]] (increased [[granulocyte]]s) due to the production of [[Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor|G-CSF]]
***[[Granulocytosis]] (increased [[granulocyte]]s) due to the production of [[Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor|G-CSF]]
*** [[Eosinophilia]]
*** [[Eosinophilia]]
*** [[Pure red cell aplasia]]
*** [[Pure red cell aplasia]]
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===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
* The major [[causes]] of paraneoplastic syndrome include:<ref name="pmid1591305">{{cite journal| author=Richardson GE, Johnson BE| title=Paraneoplastic syndromes in lung cancer. | journal=Curr Opin Oncol | year= 1992 | volume= 4 | issue= 2 | pages= 323-33 | pmid=1591305 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1591305  }}</ref><ref name="pmid8946620">{{cite journal| author=Gold PJ, Fefer A, Thompson JA| title=Paraneoplastic manifestations of renal cell carcinoma. | journal=Semin Urol Oncol | year= 1996 | volume= 14 | issue= 4 | pages= 216-22 | pmid=8946620 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8946620  }}</ref><ref name="pmid191296132">{{cite journal| author=Horwhat JD, Gerke H, Acosta RD, Pavey DA, Jowell PS| title=Focal or diffuse "fullness" of the pancreas on CT. Usually benign, but EUS plus/minus FNA is warranted to identify malignancy. | journal=JOP | year= 2009 | volume= 10 | issue= 1 | pages= 37-42 | pmid=19129613 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19129613  }}</ref>
* The major [[causes]] of paraneoplastic syndrome include:<ref name="pmid1591305">{{cite journal| author=Richardson GE, Johnson BE| title=Paraneoplastic syndromes in lung cancer. | journal=Curr Opin Oncol | year= 1992 | volume= 4 | issue= 2 | pages= 323-33 | pmid=1591305 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1591305  }}</ref><ref name="pmid8946620">{{cite journal| author=Gold PJ, Fefer A, Thompson JA| title=Paraneoplastic manifestations of renal cell carcinoma. | journal=Semin Urol Oncol | year= 1996 | volume= 14 | issue= 4 | pages= 216-22 | pmid=8946620 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8946620  }}</ref><ref name="pmid191296132">{{cite journal| author=Horwhat JD, Gerke H, Acosta RD, Pavey DA, Jowell PS| title=Focal or diffuse "fullness" of the pancreas on CT. Usually benign, but EUS plus/minus FNA is warranted to identify malignancy. | journal=JOP | year= 2009 | volume= 10 | issue= 1 | pages= 37-42 | pmid=19129613 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19129613  }}</ref>
** [[Small cell lung cancer]]
**[[Small cell lung cancer]]
** [[Non-small cell lung cancer]]
** [[Non-small cell lung cancer]]
** [[Myeloma]]
** [[Myeloma]]
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| bgcolor="Beige" |
| bgcolor="Beige" |
* [[Myeloproliferative disorders]],
* [[Myeloproliferative disorders]],
* [[Myeloma]], [[Melanoma]]
*[[Multiple myeloma]], [[Melanoma]]
* [[Lymphoma]]
* [[Lymphoma]]
* [[Human T-lymphotropic virus|HTLV]]-associated [[Lymphoma]]
* [[Human T-lymphotropic virus|HTLV]]-associated [[Lymphoma]]
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* [[Cancer|Cancers]] of the [[T-cells]]  
* [[Cancer|Cancers]] of the [[T-cells]]  
* [[Adult T-cell leukemia]]
* [[Adult T-cell leukemia]]
* [[Acute myeloid leukemia]],
* [[Acute myeloid leukemia]]


|-
|-
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* [[Lymphadenopathy]]
* [[Lymphadenopathy]]
* [[Fingers]] [[clubbing]]


<br />
<br />
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| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Decreased [[breath sound]] in lung auscultation
* Decreased [[breath sound]] in lung auscultation
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Fingers]] [[clubbing]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[Calcium|Ca++]]
* ↑ [[Calcium|Ca++]]
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* [[Jaundice]]  
* [[Jaundice]]  
* [[Cachexia]]
* [[Cachexia]]
* [[Ascites]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Splenomegaly]]
* [[Splenomegaly]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Ascite|Abdominal swelling with fluid shift]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[PT|Prolonged  PT]]
* [[PT|Prolonged  PT]]
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* Dimpling of [[skin]] [[Nipples|Inverted nipples]]
* Dimpling of [[skin]] [[Nipples|Inverted nipples]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Bloody [[nipple discharge]], Change in [[Personality changes|personality]]
* Bloody [[nipple discharge]]
*Change in [[Personality changes|personality]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
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* [[Pallor]]
* [[Pallor]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[Calcium|ca++]]  
* ↑ [[Ca|Ca++]]
* [[Polycythemia]]  
* [[Polycythemia]]  
* ↑ [[platelets]]
* ↑ [[Platelets]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[ALP]]
* ↑ [[ALP]]
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* [[Loss of appetite]]
* [[Loss of appetite]]
* [[Greasy stools]]
* [[Greasy stools]]
* [[Asthenia]]
*[[Lack of energy]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Cachexia]]  
* [[Cachexia]]  
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* [[Palpable|Palpable periumbilical]] [[mass]]
* [[Palpable|Palpable periumbilical]] [[mass]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[bilirubin]]
* ↑ [[Bilirubin]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[ALP]]
* ↑ [[ALP]]
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| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[CA 19-9]]
* ↑ [[CA 19-9]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Anemia]]<br />
* [[Anemia]]<br />
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
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| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Lymphadenopathy]]
* [[Lymphadenopathy]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Hepatosplenomegaly]]
* [[Hepatosplenomegaly]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[ESR]]
* ↑ [[ESR]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[LDH]]
* ↑ [[LDH]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
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| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Asymptomatic]] at first
* [[Asymptomatic]] at first
* Unexplained [[thromboses]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Abdominal pain]]
* [[Abdominal pain]]
* Bloating
*[[Bloating]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* [[Early satiety]]
* [[Early satiety]]
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| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Palpable [[adnexal]] [[mass]]
* Palpable [[adnexal]] [[mass]]
* [[Ascites]]
*[[Ascites|Abdominal swelling with fluid shift]]
* [[Pleural effusion]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* Leg [[swelling]] and [[tenderness]]
* Leg [[swelling]] and [[tenderness]]
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| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[CA-125]]
* ↑ [[CA-125]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
* ↑ [[Calcium|Ca++]]
* ↑ [[Calcium|Ca++]]
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |_
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |

Revision as of 15:56, 11 October 2019

PCFor patient information, click here

Paraneoplastic syndrome Microchapters

Patient Information

Overview

Classification

Endocrine
Musculocutaneous
Neurological
Hematological
Others

Causes

Differential diagnosis

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] ; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Gertrude Djouka, M.D.[2]

Synonyms and keywords: Paraneoplastic syndrome

Overview

Paraneoplastic syndromes are a rare type of disease that is caused by abnormal immune systems resulting from cancerous cells. Paraneoplastic syndromes are disorders due to the release of hormones, or peptides that cause immune cross-reactivity between cancerous cells and normal tissues. Sometimes the symptoms of paraneoplastic syndromes show even before the diagnosis of a malignancy. There is no screening for paraneoplastic syndromes. The stage and type of diagnosis of cancer determine the prognosis of a paraneoplastic syndrome. The causes are mostly related to the organ affected. The paraneoplastic syndromes are divided into four main categories such as musculocutaneous, neurological, hematological and endocrines. They are no cures for the paraneoplastic syndrome, but cancer treatment and some medications to reduce autoimmune responses are helpful.

Classification

Causes

Common Causes

Causes by Organ System

  • Paraneoplastic syndromes causes may be regrouped by organ system.[16][17]
Dermatologic
Ear Nose Throat
Endocrine
Gastroenterologic
Hematologic
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic
Neurologic
Obstetric/Gynecologic
Oncologic
Pulmonary
Renal/Electrolyte
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy
  • No underlying causes
Urologic
Miscellaneous

Differential diagnosis

Paraneoplastic syndromes must be differentiated from others types of cancer depending on the location and type of organs.

Diseases Clinical manifestations Para-clinical findings Gold standard Additional findings
Symptoms Physical examination
Lab Findings Imaging Histopathology
Small cell lung cancer[18][19] _ _ Small, round and oval cells

Necrosis

Biopsy _
Squamous lung cancer[20]


_ _ _ _
Hepatocellular carcinoma[21][22] _ _ _ _
Diseases Symptom 1 Symptom 2 Symptom 3 Physical exam 1 Physical exam 2 Physical exam 3 Lab 1 Lab 2 Lab 3 Imaging 1 Imaging 2 Imaging 3 Histopathology Gold standard Additional findings
Breast cancer[23][24][25] _ _ _ _ _ _
Renal cancer[26][27][28][29] _ _
  • Depends on the subtypes
 _
Pancreatic cancer[30][31][32][33] _
  • U/S: hypoechoic mass
 _
Gastric cancer[34][35][36][37]


_ _ _
Lymphoma[38][39] _ _ _ _
  • Depends on the type of lymphoma
 _
Ovarian cancer[40][41] _ _ _

References

  1. ↑ Paraneoplastic+endocrine+syndromes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
  2. ↑ Stewart AF (January 2005). "Clinical practice. Hypercalcemia associated with cancer". N. Engl. J. Med. 352 (4): 373–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp042806. PMID 15673803.
  3. ↑ Spinazzé S, Schrijvers D (April 2006). "Metabolic emergencies". Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 58 (1): 79–89. doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2005.04.004. PMID 16337807.
  4. ↑ Raftopoulos H (December 2007). "Diagnosis and management of hyponatremia in cancer patients". Support Care Cancer. 15 (12): 1341–7. doi:10.1007/s00520-007-0309-9. PMID 17701059.
  5. ↑ Ellison DH, Berl T (May 2007). "Clinical practice. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis". N. Engl. J. Med. 356 (20): 2064–72. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp066837. PMID 17507705.
  6. ↑ Teale JD, Marks V (October 1998). "Glucocorticoid therapy suppresses abnormal secretion of big IGF-II by non-islet cell tumours inducing hypoglycaemia (NICTH)". Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf). 49 (4): 491–8. PMID 9876347.
  7. ↑ Cohen PR, Kurzrock R (1997). "Mucocutaneous paraneoplastic syndromes". Semin. Oncol. 24 (3): 334–59. PMID 9208889.
  8. ↑ Nervous+system+paraneoplastic+syndromes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
  9. ↑ Didelot A, Honnorat J (November 2009). "Update on paraneoplastic neurological syndromes". Curr Opin Oncol. 21 (6): 566–72. doi:10.1097/CCO.0b013e3283306647. PMID 19620862.
  10. ↑ Dalmau J, Tüzün E, Wu HY; et al. (2007). "Paraneoplastic anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis associated with ovarian teratoma". Ann. Neurol. 61 (1): 25–36. doi:10.1002/ana.21050. PMC 2430743. PMID 17262855. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ Staszewski H (1997). "Hematological paraneoplastic syndromes". Semin. Oncol. 24 (3): 329–33. PMID 9208888.
  12. ↑ Blay JY, Favrot M, Rossi JF, Wijdenes J (October 1993). "Role of interleukin-6 in paraneoplastic thrombocytosis". Blood. 82 (7): 2261–2. PMID 8400277.
  13. ↑ Richardson GE, Johnson BE (1992). "Paraneoplastic syndromes in lung cancer". Curr Opin Oncol. 4 (2): 323–33. PMID 1591305.
  14. ↑ Gold PJ, Fefer A, Thompson JA (1996). "Paraneoplastic manifestations of renal cell carcinoma". Semin Urol Oncol. 14 (4): 216–22. PMID 8946620.
  15. ↑ Horwhat JD, Gerke H, Acosta RD, Pavey DA, Jowell PS (2009). "Focal or diffuse "fullness" of the pancreas on CT. Usually benign, but EUS plus/minus FNA is warranted to identify malignancy". JOP. 10 (1): 37–42. PMID 19129613.
  16. ↑ Pelosof LC, Gerber DE (2010). "Paraneoplastic syndromes: an approach to diagnosis and treatment". Mayo Clin Proc. 85 (9): 838–54. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0099. PMC 2931619. PMID 20810794.
  17. ↑ Henry K (July 2019). "Paraneoplastic syndromes: Definitions, classification, pathophysiology and principles of treatment". Semin Diagn Pathol. 36 (4): 204–210. doi:10.1053/j.semdp.2019.01.002. PMID 30876820.
  18. ↑ NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Small Cell Lung Cancer, version 2.2014
  19. ↑ Carter, Brett W.; Glisson, Bonnie S.; Truong, Mylene T.; Erasmus, Jeremy J. (2014). "Small Cell Lung Carcinoma: Staging, Imaging, and Treatment Considerations". RadioGraphics. 34 (6): 1707–1721. doi:10.1148/rg.346140178. ISSN 0271-5333.
  20. ↑ Rosado-de-Christenson, M L; Templeton, P A; Moran, C A (1994). "Bronchogenic carcinoma: radiologic-pathologic correlation". RadioGraphics. 14 (2): 429–446. doi:10.1148/radiographics.14.2.8190965. ISSN 0271-5333.
  21. ↑ Reynolds, Arich R.; Furlan, Alessandro; Fetzer, David T.; Sasatomi, Eizaburo; Borhani, Amir A.; Heller, Matthew T.; Tublin, Mitchell E. (2015). "Infiltrative Hepatocellular Carcinoma: What Radiologists Need to Know". RadioGraphics. 35 (2): 371–386. doi:10.1148/rg.352140114. ISSN 0271-5333.
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