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*Pediatric cases of COVID-19 have been reported in children. It ranges from asymptomatic mild cases to Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). There are less cases of SARS CoV 2 in children compared to adults. | *Pediatric cases of COVID-19 have been reported in children. It ranges from asymptomatic mild cases to Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). There are less cases of SARS CoV 2 in children compared to adults. | ||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics <ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref>== | ||
* Less than 2% of the confirmed positive cases of COVID 19 comprise of children less than 19 years of age.<ref name="pmid2091533">{{cite journal| author=Fariña LA, Iglesias JM, Hocsman H, Vicente R| title=[Cancer of the prostate with rectal invasion]. | journal=Arch Esp Urol | year= 1990 | volume= 43 | issue= 9 | pages= 1010-2 | pmid=2091533 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2091533 }} </ref> | |||
*Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to CDC | *Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to CDC from January 22–May 30, the incidence of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population. | ||
Data of children age 1-9 years with the total number of cases 20,458 reported by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30 | *Data of children age 1-9 years with the total number of cases 20,458 reported by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30 | ||
*Lowest cumulative incidence being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1) | *Lowest cumulative incidence being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1) | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ | |+ | ||
Data of children with different comorbidities as reported by the CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30 | Data of children with different comorbidities as reported by the CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30 | ||
! | ! | ||
! colspan="2" |Age | ! colspan="2" |Age | ||
| Line 98: | Line 98: | ||
!All admissions in the hospital including ICU | !All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ||
!ICU admissions | !ICU admissions | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" |All admissions in the hospital including ICU (2076) | ||
!ICU admissions | !ICU admissions | ||
! colspan="3" | | ! colspan="3" |All admissions in the hospital including ICU (5047) | ||
!ICU admissions | !ICU admissions | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 110: | Line 110: | ||
| colspan="2" |17/5047 (0.3%) | | colspan="2" |17/5047 (0.3%) | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Mode of transmission== | |||
* Most children who were found to be COVID positive were found to have acquired infection from parents and other household contacts. | |||
* For newborn babies testing positive for the COVID 19 could be infected via vertical transmission, breastfeeding, or contact with virus-contaminated surfaces<ref name="pmid32529643">{{cite journal| author=Mahyuddin AP, Kanneganti A, Wong J, Dimri PS, Su LL, Biswas A | display-authors=etal| title=Mechanisms and evidence of vertical transmission of infections in pregnancy including SARS-CoV-2. | journal=Prenat Diagn | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32529643 | doi=10.1002/pd.5765 | pmc=7307070 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32529643 }} </ref> | |||
*Breastfeeding - According to the CDC there is no transmission of the SARS CoV 2 virus from infected mother to the newborn while breastfeeding. However limited studies are available to yet decide if there is a true transmission risk while breastfeeding. | |||
*CDC advises all mothers who are positive or suspected to be COVID positive to practice precaution like covering the mouth with a face mask, washing hands with soap and water before and after washing hands. | |||
*Bulk RNA-seq profiles from two public databases including The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Functional Annotation of The Mammalian Genome Cap Analysis of Gene Expression (FANTOM5 CAGE) dataset were collected. Ace- 2 receptors are used by the coronavirus to gain entry into the cells. The RNA Sequence database found ACE-2 expression in the breast tissue similar to the expression in the lung tissue.<ref name="pmid32094336">{{cite journal| author=Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X | display-authors=etal| title=High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. | journal=Int J Oral Sci | year= 2020 | volume= 12 | issue= 1 | pages= 8 | pmid=32094336 | doi=10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x | pmc=7039956 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32094336 }} </ref> | |||
*However, the current data suggest there is one isolated case reported where the breast milk sample was found to be positive for COVID 19 sample on Day 1 and subsequently negative in the day 3 sample. More research needs to be done to conclude if there is any transmission vis breastfeeding. | |||
==Presentations== | ==Presentations== | ||
Revision as of 13:39, 25 June 2020
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COVID-19 associated pediatric complications On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of COVID-19 associated pediatric complications |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for COVID-19 associated pediatric complications |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Harmeet Kharoud M.D.[2]; Abdelrahman Ibrahim Abushouk, MD[3]; Asra Firdous, M.B.B.S.[4]
Overview
- Pediatric cases of COVID-19 have been reported in children. It ranges from asymptomatic mild cases to Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). There are less cases of SARS CoV 2 in children compared to adults.
Epidemiology and Demographics [1]
- Less than 2% of the confirmed positive cases of COVID 19 comprise of children less than 19 years of age.[2]
- Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to CDC from January 22–May 30, the incidence of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population.
- Data of children age 1-9 years with the total number of cases 20,458 reported by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30
- Lowest cumulative incidence being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1)
| Age | ||
|---|---|---|
| Different comorbidities | <9 | 10-19 |
| Underlying medical condition | 2896(14.2%) | 7123(14.5%) |
| Cardiovascular disorders | 78(2.7%) | 164(2.3%) |
| Chronic lung disease | 363(12.5%) | 1285(18%) |
| Renal disease | 21(0.7%) | 34(0.5%) |
| Diabetes | 12(0.4%) | 34(0.5%) |
| Liver disease | 5(0.2%) | 19(0.3%) |
| Immunicompromised | 61(2.1%) | 146(2.0%) |
| Neurological disease | 41(1.4%) | 113(1.6%) |
| Total cases in the population 1,320,488 | 20458 | 49245 |
| Age | All admissions in the hospital and ICU divided according to associated comorbidity | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <9 years (20458 cases) | All patients (20458) | Among all patients with reported underlying disease (619) | Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (2277) | ||||||
| All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | ||||
| 848/20458 (4.1%) | 141/20458 (0.7%) | 138/619 (22.3%) | 31/619 (5%) | 84/2277(3.7%) | 116/2277 (0.7%) | ||||
| 10-19 years (49245 cases) | All patients (49245) | Among all patients with reported
underlying disease (2076) |
Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (5047) | ||||||
| All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU (2076) | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU (5047) | ICU admissions | ||||
| 1234/49245 (2.5%) | 216/49245 (0.4%) | 309/2076 (14.9%) | 72/2076 (3.5%) | 115/5047 (2.3%) | 17/5047 (0.3%) | ||||
Mode of transmission
- Most children who were found to be COVID positive were found to have acquired infection from parents and other household contacts.
- For newborn babies testing positive for the COVID 19 could be infected via vertical transmission, breastfeeding, or contact with virus-contaminated surfaces[3]
- Breastfeeding - According to the CDC there is no transmission of the SARS CoV 2 virus from infected mother to the newborn while breastfeeding. However limited studies are available to yet decide if there is a true transmission risk while breastfeeding.
- CDC advises all mothers who are positive or suspected to be COVID positive to practice precaution like covering the mouth with a face mask, washing hands with soap and water before and after washing hands.
- Bulk RNA-seq profiles from two public databases including The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Functional Annotation of The Mammalian Genome Cap Analysis of Gene Expression (FANTOM5 CAGE) dataset were collected. Ace- 2 receptors are used by the coronavirus to gain entry into the cells. The RNA Sequence database found ACE-2 expression in the breast tissue similar to the expression in the lung tissue.[4]
- However, the current data suggest there is one isolated case reported where the breast milk sample was found to be positive for COVID 19 sample on Day 1 and subsequently negative in the day 3 sample. More research needs to be done to conclude if there is any transmission vis breastfeeding.
Presentations
- Presentation of COVID-19 is less severe in children as compared to adults.
- According to CDC, as of April 2, 2020, 1.7% confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in children aged <18 years age among the total number of confirmed cases of COVID-19.
- Illness severity of COVID-19 in children ranges from asymptomatic to critical.
Symptoms
- Fever and Cough are one of the most common symptoms reported in children. One study showed fever is prevalent in 47.5% of children and cough in 41.5% among the 1124 children with COVID-19.According to the CDC, fever, and cough was reported in 56% and 54% of children with COVID 19
- Dyspnea, nasal congestion, pharyngeal erythema, and sore throat are also common presentations in children.
- Gastrointestinal symptoms-The gastrointestinal manifestation in COVID-19 positive children are diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, nausea, and anorexia. Children can present with gastrointestinal symptoms in the absence of respiratory symptoms.
- Cutaneous Findings
Clinical Course of COVID-19 in children.
- Asymptomatic presentation-
- Children present with no clinical signs or symptoms with normal chest imaging.
- Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection 4% of children were asymptomatic.
- According to one study 14.2% of children were asymptomatic. Another study showed 18% of asymptomatic children with COVID-19.
- Mild Disease
- Severe
- Children present with dyspnea, central cyanosis, hypoxia.[5]
- Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection 5% of children had a severe presentation.[5]
- 2.1% of children present with a severe form of COVID-19 disease.
- Children with underlying comorbidities are more susceptible to getting severe COVID-19 disease.
- Critical
- Children present with acute respiratory distress syndrome(ARDS), respiratory failure, shock, or multi-organ dysfunction.[5]
- Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection, 0.6%% of children had a critical presentation.[5]
Complications
Some of the complications associated with COVID-19 pediatric population are
- Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MISC-C)
- Exacerbation of the underlying conditions
- Sepsis
- Septic shock
- Secondary Bacterial infections.
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
- It is a condition that causes inflammation of some parts of the body like heart, blood vessels, kidneys, digestive system, brain, skin, or eyes.
- According to recent evidence, it is suggested that children with MISC had antibodies against COVID-19 suggesting children had COVID-19 infection in the past.
Symptoms
- Fever lasting 24 hours or longer.
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Abdominal pain
- Skin rash
- Red eyes
- Redness or swelling of the lips and tongue
- Lethargy
- Redness or swelling of the hands or feet
Emergency Warning Signs
Diagnosis
Preliminary WHO case definition: Children and adolescents
- 0–19 years of age with fever >3 days
AND
- Two of the following:
- Rash or bilateral non-purulent conjunctivitis or muco-cutaneous inflammation signs (oral, hands or feet)
- Hypotension or shock
- Features of myocardial dysfunction, pericarditis, valvulitis, or coronary abnormalities (including ECHO findings or elevated Troponin/NT-proBNP)
- Evidence of coagulopathy (by PT, PTT, elevated D-Dimers)
- Acute gastrointestinal problems (diarrhea, vomiting, or abdominal pain)
AND
- Elevated markers of inflammation such as ESR, C-reactive protein, or procalcitonin
AND
- No other obvious microbial cause of inflammation, including bacterial sepsis, staphylococcal or streptococcal shock syndromes
AND
- Evidence of COVID-19 (RT-PCR, antigen test or serology-positive), or likely contact with patients with COVID-19
Prevention of MIS-C
- MIS-C can be prevented by reducing the risk of child exposure to COVID-19 infection.
Diagnosis
Most of the children with SARS-CoV-2 infection are either asymptomatic or produce mild symptoms. As asymptomatic patients do not get tested for COVID-19 and are potential carriers for viral transmission, high clinical suspicion is required to prevent such transmissions to a population at risk of developing severe disease. A pediatrician should be cautious to eliminate other causes of respiratory illnesses like seasonal influenza before any diagnostic tests. No diagnostic test is required for a kid with mild illness and no history of exposure to SARS-CoV-2.
Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved real-time Reverse-Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) as the preferred test for diagnosing COVID-19 in children
- RT-PCR has high specificity and sensitivity of 66-80% in diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection
- The test is negative during the first 7-10 days of the infection and remains positive for several weeks after the infection subsides
- Swab contamination may produce false-positive results
- High levels of SARS-CoV-2 RNA were obtained in the samples from the upper respiratory tract in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients
- Nasopharyngeal swabs and oropharyngeal swabs or throat swab are the preferred samples for the diagnostic test
- Nasopharyngeal swab is collected in children less than 2 years of age
- A throat swab is preferred for children above 2 years
- Due to the difficulty in obtaining samples and poor cooperation of children, it is advised to use saliva samples to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection
- Saliva samples reportedly showed higher positive rates than Nasopharyngeal swabs in adults. It is quick and non-invasive that deceases the risk of exposure and contamination
- In patients with a high risk of exposure, one negative test result does not exclude the infection. The test should be repeated or lower respiratory tract samples like Bronchoscopic Alveolar Lavage (BAL) should be used as a specimen in such patients
- Due to the increased risk of exposure for both patient and health care worker, bronchoscopy is not recommended to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection
- In patients on mechanical ventilation, bronchoscopic alveolar lavage fluid or endotracheal aspirates can be used
- The virus RNA was also detected in blood and stools specimen
- Real-time Fluorescent RT-PCR is used in children with atypical symptoms
- Alternatively, some researchers suggest using metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) of viral RNA for the diagnosis
Lab abnormalities
Studies reportedly showed following lab abnormalities in pediatric patients with COVID-19
- Leucocytosis(7.5%) or Leucopenia(16.6%)
- Increased (27.4%) or decreased (24%) neutrophils
- Lymphopenia (12.9%) or Lymphocytosis (11.7%)
- Increased (9.5%) or decreased (3.2%) platelets
- Increased CRP levels (19.3%)
- Increased procalcitonin levels (49.8%)
- Increased liver enzymes (19.2%)
- Increased Serum Creatinine (4%)
- Increased blood urea nitrogen (5%)
- Increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels (29%)
- Increased Creatine kinase levels (21%)
- Increased D-dimer levels (12%)
Co-infections
Co-infection with other pathogens were reported in 27% of cases. Some common microorganisms associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in children are:
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Influenza B virus
- Influenza A virus
- Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
- Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
- Enterobacter aerogenes
Radiological findings
CT chest is an important diagnostic modality in pediatric patients with COVID-19. Chest CT scans has reportedly shown higher positive rates in suspected patients than RT-PCR. It has better sensitivity. CT chest and a series of chest X-rays can be used to monitor the progression of the disease. Imaging findings reported in the studies are
- Local patchy shadows (18.7%)
- Bilateral patchy shadows (12.3%)
- Consolidation (33%)
- Ground glass opacities (28%)
- Interstitial abnormalities (1.2%)
- Pleural effusion was reported in a 2-month old child who had a co-infection with RSV along with SARS-CoV-2
Children are at increased risk of radiation and its effects, so CT scans and X-rays should be judiciously used in them. It is advised to perform Pulmonary Ultrasonography (USG) in newborns. It has better sensitivity and is safer than CT scans and Chest X-rays.
Management
Management of COVID-19 in pediatric patients depends on the severity of symptoms.
- Hospital admission and level of care depend on the clinical presentation, supportive care requirement, underlying comorbidities, and availability of health care facilities at home
- Suspected patients must be isolated at a hospital or home until the diagnosis is excluded
- After confirming the diagnosis, they should be hospitalized and isolated in the wards maintained for pediatric patients with COVID-19
- Critical and severe cases require Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission and management
As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the main goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, provide supportive care, prevent and treat complications, treat underlying diseases and secondary infections, and provide organ function support. Following measures are reported to be crucial in the management of COVID-19[6]
- Bed rest
- Adequate calorie and water intake
- Maintain electrolyte balance and homeostasis
- Maintain airways patency
- Monitor vital signs and SpO2
- Symptomatic treatment and Supportive care
- Routine blood tests to monitor organ functions
- Repeat chest imaging to monitor the progression of the disease
Symptomatic treatment and Supportive Care
Fever should be treated with physical cooling and antipyretics. If the body temperature exceeds 38.5C, antipyretic drugs should be started. Drugs that can be used in children are acetaminophen 10-15 mg/kg and ibuprofen 5-10 mg/kg orally.[6]
Respiratory support
- When the oxygen saturations are low, oxygen therapy should be started using a nasal catheter or mask oxygen[7]
- Alternatively, heated humidified high flow nasal cannula (HHHFNC) can be used to improve oxygenation
- If symptoms of respiratory difficulty persist, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or non-invasive high-frequency ventilation should be considered
- Patients should be started on mechanical ventilation immediately when no improvement occurs or respiratory health is rapidly deteriorating.
Mechanical Ventilation
Low tidal volume mechanical ventilation is preferred to prevent ventilation related lung injury. Criteria for starting mechanical ventilation[6]
- No improvement observed with non-invasive ventilation
OR
- Intolerant to non-invasive ventilation
OR
- Increased airway secretions, severe cough, and hemodynamic instability
Antibiotics
Antibiotics and antifungals help in reducing symptoms and preventing complications of secondary infections[8]
Corticosteroids
Steroids are used in severe cases and to prevent complications[8]. Any of the following criteria must be met before starting corticosteroid therapy in patients with COVID-19[6]. Intravenous methylprednisolone 1-2mg/kg/day used for 3-5 days. Long-term usage is highly discouraged.
- Rapid progression of the disease as documented from chest imaging and development of ARDS
OR
- Patients who develop encephalitis or encephalopathy, hemophagocytic syndrome, and other serious complications
OR
- Patient develops septic shock
OR
- Patient presents with wheezing
Anticoagulation therapy
- Patients with raised D-dimer levels are at increased risk of thrombus formation
- Anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy can be given to prevent this complication
- Low molecular weight Heparin was reportedly used during the early stages.
Convalescent plasma therapy
Evidence suggests the use of plasma therapy in children with exacerbations and severe and critical disease.
Immunoglobulin therapy
- Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) can be used in severe cases[8]
- Dose of 1g/kg/day for 2days or 400mg/kg/day for 8 days is recommended for children
- More studies are required to support its efficacy and safety in children with COVID-19
Antiviral therapy
Following are the experimental drugs that are being considered to treat children with COVID-19[9]. Various clinical trials are being conducted on the efficacy and safety of these drugs in children with COVID-19.
Interferon-alpha
Inhaled interferon-alpha was the most commonly used antiviral in patients with COVID-19. Reports suggest that it helps in decreasing the viral load, alleviating symptoms and shortening the disease course.[10][11]
Remdesivir
- It is a nucleotide analogue that inhibits viral RNA polymerase
- It was effectively used during Ebola, SARS, and MERS outbreaks
- It was effective in-vitro against SARS-CoV-2[12]
- No adverse effects were reported in a newborn treated for Ebola[13]
- Phase III clinical trial is being conducted on the effectiveness of Remdesivir in treating COVID-19 in adults and children above 12 years of age[14]
- FDA has approved the emergency use of Remdesivir in treating hospitalized children with severe disease"Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Issues Emergency Use Authorization for Potential COVID-19 Treatment | FDA".
Favipiravir
- Favipiravir is an RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor
- In patients above 16 years, reports showed faster viral clearance and higher recovery rate with Favipiravir[15]
- It was effective during Ebola and Influenza outbreak[16]
- The safety and efficacy of Favipiravir are still being debated
- Due to its efficiency in treating SARS, MERS, Ebola, and Influenza,[16] it is being considered as a potential treatment for severely ill children who did not respond to other treatment options[15]
Prevention
References
- ↑ Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S; et al. (2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69 (24): 759–765. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2. PMC 7302472 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32555134 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Fariña LA, Iglesias JM, Hocsman H, Vicente R (1990). "[Cancer of the prostate with rectal invasion]". Arch Esp Urol. 43 (9): 1010–2. PMID 2091533.
- ↑ Mahyuddin AP, Kanneganti A, Wong J, Dimri PS, Su LL, Biswas A; et al. (2020). "Mechanisms and evidence of vertical transmission of infections in pregnancy including SARS-CoV-2". Prenat Diagn. doi:10.1002/pd.5765. PMC 7307070 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32529643 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X; et al. (2020). "High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa". Int J Oral Sci. 12 (1): 8. doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x. PMC 7039956 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32094336 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Eastin, Carly; Eastin, Travis (2020). "Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 58 (4): 712–713. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006. ISSN 0736-4679.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, Zhao D, Jiang Y, Jin R; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts' consensus statement". World J Pediatr. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7. PMC 7090771 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32034659 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Sankar J, Dhochak N, Kabra SK, Lodha R (2020). "COVID-19 in Children: Clinical Approach and Management". Indian J Pediatr. 87 (6): 433–442. doi:10.1007/s12098-020-03292-1. PMC 7183927 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32338347 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Zhang L, Peres TG, Silva MVF, Camargos P (2020). "What we know so far about Coronavirus Disease 2019 in children: A meta-analysis of 551 laboratory-confirmed cases". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24869. PMC 7300763 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32519809 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Deniz M, Tapısız A, Tezer H (2020). "Drugs being investigated for children with COVID-19". Acta Paediatr. doi:10.1111/apa.15399. PMC 7300686 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32506621 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Wang BX, Fish EN (2019). "Global virus outbreaks: Interferons as 1st responders". Semin Immunol. 43: 101300. doi:10.1016/j.smim.2019.101300. PMC 7128104 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 31771760. - ↑ Chen L, Shi M, Deng Q, Liu W, Li Q, Ye P; et al. (2020). "Correction: A multi-center randomized prospective study on the treatment of infant bronchiolitis with interferon α1b nebulization". PLoS One. 15 (4): e0231911. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0231911. PMC 7147733 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32275690 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, Diaz G, Asperges E, Castagna A; et al. (2020). "Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19". N Engl J Med. 382 (24): 2327–2336. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2007016. PMC 7169476 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32275812 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Dörnemann J, Burzio C, Ronsse A, Sprecher A, De Clerck H, Van Herp M; et al. (2017). "First Newborn Baby to Receive Experimental Therapies Survives Ebola Virus Disease". J Infect Dis. 215 (2): 171–174. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiw493. PMC 5583641. PMID 28073857.
- ↑ Campbell CH (1967). "Effect of incubation temperature and serum content in agar overlay on plaque production by foot-and-mouth disease virus". Can J Comp Med Vet Sci. 31 (10): 251–5. PMC 1494743. PMID 04292899.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, Chen J, Shu D, Xia J; et al. (2020). "Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study". Engineering (Beijing). doi:10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007. PMC 7185795 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32346491 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 16.0 16.1 Bouazza N, Treluyer JM, Foissac F, Mentré F, Taburet AM, Guedj J; et al. (2015). "Favipiravir for children with Ebola". Lancet. 385 (9968): 603–604. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60232-X. PMID 25706078.