COVID-19-associated anorexia: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
According to a recent study by Pan et al, 48.5% presented with digestive symptoms as their chief complaint. [[Anorexia]] was the most common ( | According to a recent study by Pan et al, 48.5% presented with digestive symptoms as their chief complaint. [[Anorexia]] was the most common (40-84%) of digestive symptoms associated with SARS-Cov2 infection. With COVID-19 primarily being a respiratory disease, surprisingly around 3% cases had just the digestive symptoms but no respiratory symptoms.<ref name="pmid32287140">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pan L, Mu M, Yang P, Sun Y, Wang R, Yan J, Li P, Hu B, Wang J, Hu C, Jin Y, Niu X, Ping R, Du Y, Li T, Xu G, Hu Q, Tu L |title=Clinical Characteristics of COVID-19 Patients With Digestive Symptoms in Hubei, China: A Descriptive, Cross-Sectional, Multicenter Study |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=115 |issue=5 |pages=766–773 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32287140 |pmc=7172492 |doi=10.14309/ajg.0000000000000620 |url=}}</ref><ref name="urlManagement of Patients with Confirmed 2019-nCoV | CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-guidance-management-patients.html |title=Management of Patients with Confirmed 2019-nCoV | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
====Historical Perspective== | ====Historical Perspective== | ||
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*With the increasing evidence and ongoing research, [[anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]] is now reported to be a common symptom in patients with [[COVID-19]], and the viral infection is suspected in a patient presenting with [[anorexia]] along with other [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms. Research is underway to develop a better understanding of the etiology, risk factors, and treatment of [[anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]]. | *With the increasing evidence and ongoing research, [[anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]] is now reported to be a common symptom in patients with [[COVID-19]], and the viral infection is suspected in a patient presenting with [[anorexia]] along with other [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms. Research is underway to develop a better understanding of the etiology, risk factors, and treatment of [[anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]]. | ||
*[[Anorexia]] was described as one of the common [[symptom]]s at the onset of illness and it was also reported to be more common in [[ICU]] [[patients]].<ref name="WangHu2020">{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Dawei|last2=Hu|first2=Bo|last3=Hu|first3=Chang|last4=Zhu|first4=Fangfang|last5=Liu|first5=Xing|last6=Zhang|first6=Jing|last7=Wang|first7=Binbin|last8=Xiang|first8=Hui|last9=Cheng|first9=Zhenshun|last10=Xiong|first10=Yong|last11=Zhao|first11=Yan|last12=Li|first12=Yirong|last13=Wang|first13=Xinghuan|last14=Peng|first14=Zhiyong|title=Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China|journal=JAMA|volume=323|issue=11|year=2020|pages=1061|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2020.1585}}</ref> | *[[Anorexia]] was described as one of the common [[symptom]]s at the onset of illness and it was also reported to be more common in [[ICU]] [[patients]].<ref name="WangHu2020">{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Dawei|last2=Hu|first2=Bo|last3=Hu|first3=Chang|last4=Zhu|first4=Fangfang|last5=Liu|first5=Xing|last6=Zhang|first6=Jing|last7=Wang|first7=Binbin|last8=Xiang|first8=Hui|last9=Cheng|first9=Zhenshun|last10=Xiong|first10=Yong|last11=Zhao|first11=Yan|last12=Li|first12=Yirong|last13=Wang|first13=Xinghuan|last14=Peng|first14=Zhiyong|title=Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China|journal=JAMA|volume=323|issue=11|year=2020|pages=1061|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2020.1585}}</ref> | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
*Studies have reported several pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] and [[chemokines]], particularly CXCL10, CXCL8, CCL2, [[Tumor necrosis factor-alpha|TNFα]] and IFNγ to be higher in the [[plasma]] of [[COVID-19|SARS Cov2]] [[patients]].<ref name="pmid32270184">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chu H, Chan JF, Wang Y, Yuen TT, Chai Y, Hou Y, Shuai H, Yang D, Hu B, Huang X, Zhang X, Cai JP, Zhou J, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chan IH, Zhang AJ, Sit KY, Au WK, Yuen KY |title=Comparative replication and immune activation profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in human lungs: an ex vivo study with implications for the pathogenesis of COVID-19 |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume= |issue= |pages= |date=April 2020 |pmid=32270184 |pmc=7184390 |doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa410 |url=}}</ref> A relationship of [[cytokines]] and [[COVID-19]] infection has been established.<ref name="pmid32446778">{{cite journal |vauthors=Coperchini F, Chiovato L, Croce L, Magri F, Rotondi M |title=The cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system |journal=Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. |volume=53 |issue= |pages=25–32 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32446778 |pmc=7211650 |doi=10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.05.003 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* | *The exact mechanisms through which [[COVID-19]] causes [[anorexia]] is yet to be completely unveiled. The described possible mechanism of [[anorexia]], a general response to [[infection]] is as follows. The [[microbial]] products during [[infection]] set off the development of [[acute phase protein]]s such as [[cytokines]] ([[Interleukin]] and [[Tumor necrosis factor-alpha|TNF alpha]]) which are known to cause [[anorexia]]. [[Cytokines]] locally released activate the [[peripheral]] [[sensory fibers]] causing loss of appetite. The direct effect of [[cytokines]] and [[microbial]] products on the [[CNS]] (the [[Hypothalamus|center of appetite]]) is involved in the anorexia during infection.<ref name="pmid17290560">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kanra GY, Ozen H, Kara A |title=Infection and anorexia |journal=Turk. J. Pediatr. |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=279–87 |date=2006 |pmid=17290560 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10657519">{{cite journal |vauthors=Langhans W, Hrupka B |title=Interleukins and tumor necrosis factor as inhibitors of food intake |journal=Neuropeptides |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=415–24 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10657519 |doi=10.1054/npep.1999.0048 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*The detection of viral [[nucleocapsid]] protein in gastrointestinal [[epithelial cells]] and viral RNA in [[fecal]] [[specimens]] reflects the infectivity and chance of direct [[cytokine]] or [[chemokine]] response<ref name="ZouChen2020">{{cite journal|last1=Zou|first1=Xin|last2=Chen|first2=Ke|last3=Zou|first3=Jiawei|last4=Han|first4=Peiyi|last5=Hao|first5=Jie|last6=Han|first6=Zeguang|title=Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection|journal=Frontiers of Medicine|volume=14|issue=2|year=2020|pages=185–192|issn=2095-0217|doi=10.1007/s11684-020-0754-0}}</ref> | |||
* | *[[COVID-19-associated hepatic injury]] can lead to anorexia.<ref name="pmid9062842">{{cite journal |vauthors=Laviano A, Cangiano C, Preziosa I, Riggio O, Conversano L, Cascino A, Ariemma S, Rossi Fanelli F |title=Plasma tryptophan levels and anorexia in liver cirrhosis |journal=Int J Eat Disord |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=181–6 |date=March 1997 |pmid=9062842 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199703)21:2<181::aid-eat9>3.0.co;2-h |url=}}</ref> | ||
* | |||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
[[Anorexia]] in a [[patient]] hospitalized due to [[COVID-19]] may be due to: | |||
*[[COVID-19-associated hepatic injury]] | |||
*Underlying conditions such as [[cancer]] | |||
*Medication used to treat the [[COVID-19]] infection such as Remdesivir<ref name="WangZhang2020">{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Yeming|last2=Zhang|first2=Dingyu|last3=Du|first3=Guanhua|last4=Du|first4=Ronghui|last5=Zhao|first5=Jianping|last6=Jin|first6=Yang|last7=Fu|first7=Shouzhi|last8=Gao|first8=Ling|last9=Cheng|first9=Zhenshun|last10=Lu|first10=Qiaofa|last11=Hu|first11=Yi|last12=Luo|first12=Guangwei|last13=Wang|first13=Ke|last14=Lu|first14=Yang|last15=Li|first15=Huadong|last16=Wang|first16=Shuzhen|last17=Ruan|first17=Shunan|last18=Yang|first18=Chengqing|last19=Mei|first19=Chunlin|last20=Wang|first20=Yi|last21=Ding|first21=Dan|last22=Wu|first22=Feng|last23=Tang|first23=Xin|last24=Ye|first24=Xianzhi|last25=Ye|first25=Yingchun|last26=Liu|first26=Bing|last27=Yang|first27=Jie|last28=Yin|first28=Wen|last29=Wang|first29=Aili|last30=Fan|first30=Guohui|last31=Zhou|first31=Fei|last32=Liu|first32=Zhibo|last33=Gu|first33=Xiaoying|last34=Xu|first34=Jiuyang|last35=Shang|first35=Lianhan|last36=Zhang|first36=Yi|last37=Cao|first37=Lianjun|last38=Guo|first38=Tingting|last39=Wan|first39=Yan|last40=Qin|first40=Hong|last41=Jiang|first41=Yushen|last42=Jaki|first42=Thomas|last43=Hayden|first43=Frederick G|last44=Horby|first44=Peter W|last45=Cao|first45=Bin|last46=Wang|first46=Chen|title=Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10236|year=2020|pages=1569–1578|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31022-9}}</ref> | |||
*[[COVID-19]] associated p[[pancreatitis]]<ref name="pmid32387082">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hadi A, Werge M, Kristiansen KT, Pedersen UG, Karstensen JG, Novovic S, Gluud LL |title=Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) associated with severe acute pancreatitis: Case report on three family members |journal=Pancreatology |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=665–667 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32387082 |pmc=7199002 |doi=10.1016/j.pan.2020.04.021 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*Superimposed [[bacterial infection]]s | |||
*[[Anxiety]] associated with the infection itself | |||
==Differentiating [[anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]] from other Diseases== | ==Differentiating [[anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]] from other Diseases== | ||
*[[Anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]] must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [[anorexia]] such as:<ref name="pmid32314792">{{cite journal |vauthors=Occhipinti V, Pastorelli L |title=Challenges in the Care of IBD Patients During the CoViD-19 Pandemic: Report From a "Red Zone" Area in Northern Italy |journal=Inflamm. Bowel Dis. |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=793–796 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32314792 |pmc=7188155 |doi=10.1093/ibd/izaa084 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22905065">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ponnurangam Nagarajan V, Palaniyadi A, Sathyamoorthi M, Sasitharan R, Shuba S, Padur Sivaraman R, Scott JX |title=Pleural effusion - An unusual cause |journal=Australas Med J |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=369–72 |date=2012 |pmid=22905065 |pmc=3413004 |doi=10.4066/AMJ.2012.1024 |url= | *[[Anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]] must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [[anorexia]] such as:<ref name="pmid32314792">{{cite journal |vauthors=Occhipinti V, Pastorelli L |title=Challenges in the Care of IBD Patients During the CoViD-19 Pandemic: Report From a "Red Zone" Area in Northern Italy |journal=Inflamm. Bowel Dis. |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=793–796 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32314792 |pmc=7188155 |doi=10.1093/ibd/izaa084 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22905065">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ponnurangam Nagarajan V, Palaniyadi A, Sathyamoorthi M, Sasitharan R, Shuba S, Padur Sivaraman R, Scott JX |title=Pleural effusion - An unusual cause |journal=Australas Med J |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=369–72 |date=2012 |pmid=22905065 |pmc=3413004 |doi=10.4066/AMJ.2012.1024 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Hepatitis]]: [[Acute]] [[hepatitis]] especially [[autoimmune hepatitis]] shared common symptoms such as [[fatigue]], [[abdominal pain]], [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]], skin [[rash]]. Some hepatic infections may involve [[pleuritis]] and [[pleural effusion]] thus [[chest pain]]. | *[[Hepatitis]]: [[Acute]] [[hepatitis]] especially [[autoimmune hepatitis]] shared common symptoms such as [[fatigue]], [[abdominal pain]], [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]], skin [[rash]]. Some hepatic infections may involve [[pleuritis]] and [[pleural effusion]] thus [[chest pain]]. | ||
*''[[Crohn's disease]]'': The disease may have [[remission]]s and [[relapse]]s and present with symptoms shared by [[COVID-19]] infection as well specially during a [[relapse]]. Other [[symptoms]] of [[Crohn's disease]] include [[abdominal pain]], [[diarrhea]] that may or may not be bloody, [[fever]] and [[rash]]. A history of [[Crohn's disease]] can help the [[clinician]] decide on the [[differential diagnosis]] but it is equally important to access for possible [[COVID-19]] infection. Patient should be counselled about the similarities in two diseases. | *''[[Crohn's disease]]'': The disease may have [[remission]]s and [[relapse]]s and present with symptoms shared by [[COVID-19]] infection as well specially during a [[relapse]]. Other [[symptoms]] of [[Crohn's disease]] include [[abdominal pain]], [[diarrhea]] that may or may not be bloody, [[fever]] and [[rash]]. A history of [[Crohn's disease]] can help the [[clinician]] decide on the [[differential diagnosis]] but it is equally important to access for possible [[COVID-19]] infection. Patient should be counselled about the similarities in two diseases. | ||
*''[[Ulcerative colitis]]'': A [[relapse]] can have [[symptoms]] similar to [[COVID-19]] such as: [[abdominal pain]],[[diarrhea]], [[rash]]. A history of [[ulcerative colitis]] is important it is equally important to access for possible [[COVID-19]] infection. Patient should be counselled about the similarities in two diseases. | *''[[Ulcerative colitis]]'': A [[relapse]] can have [[symptoms]] similar to [[COVID-19]] such as: [[abdominal pain]],[[diarrhea]], [[rash]]. A history of [[ulcerative colitis]] is important it is equally important to access for possible [[COVID-19]] infection. Patient should be counselled about the similarities in two diseases. | ||
*''Chronic underlying disease-associated [[anorexia]]'': [[Cancer]] patients have [[anorexia]] and are an increased risk of [[COVID-19]] infection itself. High suspicion is required and the [[patient]] should be tested for [[COVID-19]] infection if required. | *''Chronic underlying disease-associated [[anorexia]]'': [[Cancer]] patients have [[anorexia]] and are an increased risk of [[COVID-19]] infection itself. High suspicion is required and the [[patient]] should be tested for [[COVID-19]] infection if required. | ||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ||
* Based upon the meta-analysis including 78 studies the weighted pooled prevalence of loss of appetite associated with [[COVID-19]] is approximately 22.3% ( 11.2%-34.6%)<ref name="TariqSaha2020">{{cite journal|last1=Tariq|first1=Raseen|last2=Saha|first2=Srishti|last3=Furqan|first3=Fateeha|last4=Hassett|first4=Leslie|last5=Pardi|first5=Darrell|last6=Khanna|first6=Sahil|title=Prevalence and Mortality of COVID-19 patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|year=2020|issn=00256196|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.06.003}}</ref> | * Based upon the meta-analysis including 78 studies the weighted pooled prevalence of loss of appetite associated with [[COVID-19]] is approximately 22.3% ( 11.2%-34.6%)<ref name="TariqSaha2020">{{cite journal|last1=Tariq|first1=Raseen|last2=Saha|first2=Srishti|last3=Furqan|first3=Fateeha|last4=Hassett|first4=Leslie|last5=Pardi|first5=Darrell|last6=Khanna|first6=Sahil|title=Prevalence and Mortality of COVID-19 patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|year=2020|issn=00256196|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.06.003}}</ref> | ||
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==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
* | *So far, the risk factor for the development of [[anorexia]] associated with [[COVID-19]] is the infection [[COVID-19]] itself. Other risk factors involved in the process have yet to be unveiled. | ||
== Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | == Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ||
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*Data from 3 studies reported [[anorexia]] in [[OVID-19]] patients at admission with a weighted pooled prevalence of 16.3%. | *Data from 3 studies reported [[anorexia]] in [[OVID-19]] patients at admission with a weighted pooled prevalence of 16.3%. | ||
*''Prognosis'': In a meta-analysis by Mao R. et al. the odds ratio for severe disease in patients with [[anorexia]] as one of the [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms were 2.83.<ref name="MaoQiu2020">{{cite journal|last1=Mao|first1=Ren|last2=Qiu|first2=Yun|last3=He|first3=Jin-Shen|last4=Tan|first4=Jin-Yu|last5=Li|first5=Xue-Hua|last6=Liang|first6=Jie|last7=Shen|first7=Jun|last8=Zhu|first8=Liang-Ru|last9=Chen|first9=Yan|last10=Iacucci|first10=Marietta|last11=Ng|first11=Siew C|last12=Ghosh|first12=Subrata|last13=Chen|first13=Min-Hu|title=Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology|volume=5|issue=7|year=2020|pages=667–678|issn=24681253|doi=10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30126-6}}</ref> | *''Prognosis'': In a meta-analysis by Mao R. et al. the odds ratio for severe disease in patients with [[anorexia]] as one of the [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms were 2.83.<ref name="MaoQiu2020">{{cite journal|last1=Mao|first1=Ren|last2=Qiu|first2=Yun|last3=He|first3=Jin-Shen|last4=Tan|first4=Jin-Yu|last5=Li|first5=Xue-Hua|last6=Liang|first6=Jie|last7=Shen|first7=Jun|last8=Zhu|first8=Liang-Ru|last9=Chen|first9=Yan|last10=Iacucci|first10=Marietta|last11=Ng|first11=Siew C|last12=Ghosh|first12=Subrata|last13=Chen|first13=Min-Hu|title=Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology|volume=5|issue=7|year=2020|pages=667–678|issn=24681253|doi=10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30126-6}}</ref> | ||
*An unnoticed [[anorexia]] may lead to [[hypotension]], and [[Electrolyte disturbance|electrolyte imbalance]]s. | |||
==Diagnosis== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
===Diagnostic Study of Choice=== | ===Diagnostic Study of Choice=== | ||
* COVID-19 | *There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of loss of appetite in COVID-19. | ||
* COVID-19 [[anorexia]] can be diagnosed based on the history, timing of the symptom, associated symptoms and signs such as [[abdominal pain]], [[nausea]] or [[vomiting]] (2nd and third most common symptoms) and most importantly, a positive [[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction|reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction]] (rRT-PCR) for [[COVID-19|SARS-CoV-2]]. | |||
===History and Symptoms=== | ===History and Symptoms=== | ||
*Important associated [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms with [[anorexia]] are [[nausea]] or [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]].<ref name="MaoQiu2020">{{cite journal|last1=Mao|first1=Ren|last2=Qiu|first2=Yun|last3=He|first3=Jin-Shen|last4=Tan|first4=Jin-Yu|last5=Li|first5=Xue-Hua|last6=Liang|first6=Jie|last7=Shen|first7=Jun|last8=Zhu|first8=Liang-Ru|last9=Chen|first9=Yan|last10=Iacucci|first10=Marietta|last11=Ng|first11=Siew C|last12=Ghosh|first12=Subrata|last13=Chen|first13=Min-Hu|title=Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology|volume=5|issue=7|year=2020|pages=667–678|issn=24681253|doi=10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30126-6}}</ref> | *Important associated [[gastrointestinal]] symptoms with [[anorexia]] are [[nausea]] or [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]].<ref name="MaoQiu2020">{{cite journal|last1=Mao|first1=Ren|last2=Qiu|first2=Yun|last3=He|first3=Jin-Shen|last4=Tan|first4=Jin-Yu|last5=Li|first5=Xue-Hua|last6=Liang|first6=Jie|last7=Shen|first7=Jun|last8=Zhu|first8=Liang-Ru|last9=Chen|first9=Yan|last10=Iacucci|first10=Marietta|last11=Ng|first11=Siew C|last12=Ghosh|first12=Subrata|last13=Chen|first13=Min-Hu|title=Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology|volume=5|issue=7|year=2020|pages=667–678|issn=24681253|doi=10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30126-6}}</ref> The timing of symptoms and presence of comorbid conditions helps differentiate the diseases with similar symptoms. | ||
===Physical Examination=== | ===Physical Examination=== | ||
Patients with [ | Patients with [[COVID-19]] associated [[anorexia]] may appear [[lethargic]], [[fatigue]]d or [[irritable]]. | ||
*A [[COVID-19]] positive patient may have [[pulmonary]] manifestations depicting [[pneumonia]] or [[ARDS]]. | |||
*Based of a few case reports generalised abdominal or [[epigastric]] [[tenderness]] or [[right iliac fossa]] [[tenderness]] may accompany the symptom mimicking [[acute appendicitis]].<ref name="pmid32523872">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abdalhadi A, Alkhatib M, Mismar AY, Awouda W, Albarqouni L |title=Can COVID 19 present like appendicitis? |journal=IDCases |volume=21 |issue= |pages=e00860 |date=2020 |pmid=32523872 |pmc=7265835 |doi=10.1016/j.idcr.2020.e00860 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid32387082">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hadi A, Werge M, Kristiansen KT, Pedersen UG, Karstensen JG, Novovic S, Gluud LL |title=Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) associated with severe acute pancreatitis: Case report on three family members |journal=Pancreatology |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=665–667 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32387082 |pmc=7199002 |doi=10.1016/j.pan.2020.04.021 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*Signs of [[dehydration]] such as [[sunken eyes]] and dry [[mucosa]]; low volume [[pulse]] and [[hypotension]] can be observed in severe cases. | |||
===Laboratory Findings=== | ===Laboratory Findings=== | ||
* | *Infectious [[virions]] in the [[gastrointestinal|GI]] or [[respiratory tract]] can be detected via [[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction|reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction]] (rRT-PCR). | ||
*[[Electrolyte disturbance]]- [[Hypokalemia]] especially if [[diarrhea]] or [[vomiting]] accompanies. [[Hypovolemia|Hypovolemic]][[Hyponatremia]] may occur in severe cases. | |||
*[[CBC]]- Incraesed [[hemoglobin|Hb]] due to [[hemoconcentration]] if [[dehydration]] accompanies. | |||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
===Medical Therapy=== | ===Medical Therapy=== | ||
* The mainstay of treatment is [[COVID-19]] infection treatment and supportive therapy. | |||
* The mainstay of treatment is [[COVID-19]] infection treatment. | *[[Rehydration]], [[Intravenous therapy#IV fluids|IV fluid therapy]], are essential if [[vomiting]] accompanies [[anorexia]]. | ||
* Rehydration, fluid | |||
===Primary Prevention=== | ===Primary Prevention=== | ||
*There have been rigorous efforts in order to develop a [[vaccine]] for [[COVID-10|novel coronavirus]] and several vaccines are in the later phases of trials. | *There have been rigorous efforts in order to develop a [[vaccine]] for [[COVID-10|novel coronavirus]] and several vaccines are in the later phases of trials.<ref name="urlNIH clinical trial of investigational vaccine for COVID-19 begins | National Institutes of Health (NIH)">{{cite web |url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-clinical-trial-investigational-vaccine-covid-19-begins |title=NIH clinical trial of investigational vaccine for COVID-19 begins | National Institutes of Health (NIH) |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
*Measure to prevent [[COVID-19]] infection itself include:<ref name="urlHow to Protect Yourself & Others | CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html |title=How to Protect Yourself & Others | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | *Measure to prevent [[COVID-19]] infection itself include:<ref name="urlHow to Protect Yourself & Others | CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html |title=How to Protect Yourself & Others | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
**Frequent handwashing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds or using a [[alcohol rub|alcohol based hand sanitizer]] with at least 60% alcohol. | **Frequent handwashing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds or using a [[alcohol rub|alcohol based hand sanitizer]] with at least 60% alcohol. | ||
Revision as of 12:06, 29 June 2020
For COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions, click here
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Javaria Anwer M.D.[2]
Synonyms and keywords:
Overview
According to a recent study by Pan et al, 48.5% presented with digestive symptoms as their chief complaint. Anorexia was the most common (40-84%) of digestive symptoms associated with SARS-Cov2 infection. With COVID-19 primarily being a respiratory disease, surprisingly around 3% cases had just the digestive symptoms but no respiratory symptoms.[1][2]
==Historical Perspective
- On 30th December 2019, three bronchoalveolar lavage samples collected from a patient with pneumonia of unknown etiology – a surveillance definition established following the SARS outbreak of 2002-2003 – in Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital. Real-time PCR (RT-PCR) assays on these samples were positive for pan-Betacoronavirus.
- Nanopore sequencing and bioinformatic analyses indicated that the virus had features typical of the coronavirus family and belonged to the Betacoronavirus 2B lineage.[3]
- Initially in reports till Feb 20, 2020, the patients known to have NCOV were reported to age between 30–69 years.
- In the initial reports from WHO, COVID-19 was shown to be transmitted via droplets and fomites during close unprotected contact between an infector and infectee. Airborne was not reported for COVID-19. Fecal shedding was reported to be demonstrated from some patients, with viable virus identified in a limited number of case reports. However, the fecal-oral route did not appear to be a driver of COVID-19 transmission.[3]
- On March 12, 2020, WHO declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic.
- Initially COVID-19 was primarily known as a respiratory disease. In the initial phase of the pandemic, the screening criteria for COVID‐19 did not include symptoms of abdominal pain.
- On Feb 3rd, 2020, a study published by Wang D et al. first described abdominal pain as one of the less common symptoms of COVID-19.[4]
- With the increasing evidence and ongoing research, anorexia associated with COVID-19 is now reported to be a common symptom in patients with COVID-19, and the viral infection is suspected in a patient presenting with anorexia along with other gastrointestinal symptoms. Research is underway to develop a better understanding of the etiology, risk factors, and treatment of anorexia associated with COVID-19.
- Anorexia was described as one of the common symptoms at the onset of illness and it was also reported to be more common in ICU patients.[4]
Pathophysiology
- Studies have reported several pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, particularly CXCL10, CXCL8, CCL2, TNFα and IFNγ to be higher in the plasma of SARS Cov2 patients.[5] A relationship of cytokines and COVID-19 infection has been established.[6]
- The exact mechanisms through which COVID-19 causes anorexia is yet to be completely unveiled. The described possible mechanism of anorexia, a general response to infection is as follows. The microbial products during infection set off the development of acute phase proteins such as cytokines (Interleukin and TNF alpha) which are known to cause anorexia. Cytokines locally released activate the peripheral sensory fibers causing loss of appetite. The direct effect of cytokines and microbial products on the CNS (the center of appetite) is involved in the anorexia during infection.[7][8]
- The detection of viral nucleocapsid protein in gastrointestinal epithelial cells and viral RNA in fecal specimens reflects the infectivity and chance of direct cytokine or chemokine response[9]
- COVID-19-associated hepatic injury can lead to anorexia.[10]
Causes
Anorexia in a patient hospitalized due to COVID-19 may be due to:
- COVID-19-associated hepatic injury
- Underlying conditions such as cancer
- Medication used to treat the COVID-19 infection such as Remdesivir[11]
- COVID-19 associated ppancreatitis[12]
- Superimposed bacterial infections
- Anxiety associated with the infection itself
Differentiating anorexia associated with COVID-19 from other Diseases
- Anorexia associated with COVID-19 must be differentiated from other diseases that cause anorexia such as:[13][14]
- Hepatitis: Acute hepatitis especially autoimmune hepatitis shared common symptoms such as fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, skin rash. Some hepatic infections may involve pleuritis and pleural effusion thus chest pain.
- Crohn's disease: The disease may have remissions and relapses and present with symptoms shared by COVID-19 infection as well specially during a relapse. Other symptoms of Crohn's disease include abdominal pain, diarrhea that may or may not be bloody, fever and rash. A history of Crohn's disease can help the clinician decide on the differential diagnosis but it is equally important to access for possible COVID-19 infection. Patient should be counselled about the similarities in two diseases.
- Ulcerative colitis: A relapse can have symptoms similar to COVID-19 such as: abdominal pain,diarrhea, rash. A history of ulcerative colitis is important it is equally important to access for possible COVID-19 infection. Patient should be counselled about the similarities in two diseases.
- Chronic underlying disease-associated anorexia: Cancer patients have anorexia and are an increased risk of COVID-19 infection itself. High suspicion is required and the patient should be tested for COVID-19 infection if required.
Epidemiology and Demographics
- Based upon the meta-analysis including 78 studies the weighted pooled prevalence of loss of appetite associated with COVID-19 is approximately 22.3% ( 11.2%-34.6%)[15]
Race
- China being the source of most of the demographic data on clinical features of COVID-19 and fewer studies on the demographics in other races, enabled the scientists to compare the incidence of anorexia in Chinese population and rest of the world. Data showed that loss of appetite was similar in both subgroups non-Chinese and Chinese. There is limited data to comment on the racial predilection of the symptom in other races.
Risk Factors
- So far, the risk factor for the development of anorexia associated with COVID-19 is the infection COVID-19 itself. Other risk factors involved in the process have yet to be unveiled.
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
- The appearance of anorexia has no fixed pattern of appearance in the COVID-19 clinical course. But the symptom is usually associated with nausea and vomiting.
- Anorexia at illness onset was reported in 4 studies WPP 28.9% (11.5%-48.1%).[15]
- Data from 3 studies reported anorexia in OVID-19 patients at admission with a weighted pooled prevalence of 16.3%.
- Prognosis: In a meta-analysis by Mao R. et al. the odds ratio for severe disease in patients with anorexia as one of the gastrointestinal symptoms were 2.83.[16]
- An unnoticed anorexia may lead to hypotension, and electrolyte imbalances.
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
- There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of loss of appetite in COVID-19.
- COVID-19 anorexia can be diagnosed based on the history, timing of the symptom, associated symptoms and signs such as abdominal pain, nausea or vomiting (2nd and third most common symptoms) and most importantly, a positive reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) for SARS-CoV-2.
History and Symptoms
- Important associated gastrointestinal symptoms with anorexia are nausea or vomiting, diarrhea.[16] The timing of symptoms and presence of comorbid conditions helps differentiate the diseases with similar symptoms.
Physical Examination
Patients with COVID-19 associated anorexia may appear lethargic, fatigued or irritable.
- A COVID-19 positive patient may have pulmonary manifestations depicting pneumonia or ARDS.
- Based of a few case reports generalised abdominal or epigastric tenderness or right iliac fossa tenderness may accompany the symptom mimicking acute appendicitis.[17][12]
- Signs of dehydration such as sunken eyes and dry mucosa; low volume pulse and hypotension can be observed in severe cases.
Laboratory Findings
- Infectious virions in the GI or respiratory tract can be detected via reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR).
- Electrolyte disturbance- Hypokalemia especially if diarrhea or vomiting accompanies. HypovolemicHyponatremia may occur in severe cases.
- CBC- Incraesed Hb due to hemoconcentration if dehydration accompanies.
Treatment
Medical Therapy
- The mainstay of treatment is COVID-19 infection treatment and supportive therapy.
- Rehydration, IV fluid therapy, are essential if vomiting accompanies anorexia.
Primary Prevention
- There have been rigorous efforts in order to develop a vaccine for novel coronavirus and several vaccines are in the later phases of trials.[18]
- Measure to prevent COVID-19 infection itself include:[19]
- Frequent handwashing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds or using a alcohol based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol.
- Staying at least 6 feet (about 2 arms’ length) from other people who do not live with you.
- Covering your mouth and nose with a cloth face cover when around others and covering sneezes and coughs.
- Cleaning and disinfecting.
- For the prevention of transmission through gastrointestinal tract (presence of viral RNA in the stool raise suspicion for fecal-oral transmission)
- Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by the personnel handling the fecal matter.
- Screening of fecal microbiota transplant donors for COVID-19 is also recommended.[20]
References
- ↑ Pan L, Mu M, Yang P, Sun Y, Wang R, Yan J, Li P, Hu B, Wang J, Hu C, Jin Y, Niu X, Ping R, Du Y, Li T, Xu G, Hu Q, Tu L (May 2020). "Clinical Characteristics of COVID-19 Patients With Digestive Symptoms in Hubei, China: A Descriptive, Cross-Sectional, Multicenter Study". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 115 (5): 766–773. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000620. PMC 7172492 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32287140 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ "Management of Patients with Confirmed 2019-nCoV | CDC".
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 "www.who.int" (PDF).
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Wang, Dawei; Hu, Bo; Hu, Chang; Zhu, Fangfang; Liu, Xing; Zhang, Jing; Wang, Binbin; Xiang, Hui; Cheng, Zhenshun; Xiong, Yong; Zhao, Yan; Li, Yirong; Wang, Xinghuan; Peng, Zhiyong (2020). "Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China". JAMA. 323 (11): 1061. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.1585. ISSN 0098-7484.
- ↑ Chu H, Chan JF, Wang Y, Yuen TT, Chai Y, Hou Y, Shuai H, Yang D, Hu B, Huang X, Zhang X, Cai JP, Zhou J, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chan IH, Zhang AJ, Sit KY, Au WK, Yuen KY (April 2020). "Comparative replication and immune activation profiles of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV in human lungs: an ex vivo study with implications for the pathogenesis of COVID-19". Clin. Infect. Dis. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa410. PMC 7184390 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32270184 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Coperchini F, Chiovato L, Croce L, Magri F, Rotondi M (June 2020). "The cytokine storm in COVID-19: An overview of the involvement of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system". Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 53: 25–32. doi:10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.05.003. PMC 7211650 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32446778 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Kanra GY, Ozen H, Kara A (2006). "Infection and anorexia". Turk. J. Pediatr. 48 (4): 279–87. PMID 17290560.
- ↑ Langhans W, Hrupka B (October 1999). "Interleukins and tumor necrosis factor as inhibitors of food intake". Neuropeptides. 33 (5): 415–24. doi:10.1054/npep.1999.0048. PMID 10657519.
- ↑ Zou, Xin; Chen, Ke; Zou, Jiawei; Han, Peiyi; Hao, Jie; Han, Zeguang (2020). "Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection". Frontiers of Medicine. 14 (2): 185–192. doi:10.1007/s11684-020-0754-0. ISSN 2095-0217.
- ↑ Laviano A, Cangiano C, Preziosa I, Riggio O, Conversano L, Cascino A, Ariemma S, Rossi Fanelli F (March 1997). "Plasma tryptophan levels and anorexia in liver cirrhosis". Int J Eat Disord. 21 (2): 181–6. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199703)21:2<181::aid-eat9>3.0.co;2-h. PMID 9062842.
- ↑ Wang, Yeming; Zhang, Dingyu; Du, Guanhua; Du, Ronghui; Zhao, Jianping; Jin, Yang; Fu, Shouzhi; Gao, Ling; Cheng, Zhenshun; Lu, Qiaofa; Hu, Yi; Luo, Guangwei; Wang, Ke; Lu, Yang; Li, Huadong; Wang, Shuzhen; Ruan, Shunan; Yang, Chengqing; Mei, Chunlin; Wang, Yi; Ding, Dan; Wu, Feng; Tang, Xin; Ye, Xianzhi; Ye, Yingchun; Liu, Bing; Yang, Jie; Yin, Wen; Wang, Aili; Fan, Guohui; Zhou, Fei; Liu, Zhibo; Gu, Xiaoying; Xu, Jiuyang; Shang, Lianhan; Zhang, Yi; Cao, Lianjun; Guo, Tingting; Wan, Yan; Qin, Hong; Jiang, Yushen; Jaki, Thomas; Hayden, Frederick G; Horby, Peter W; Cao, Bin; Wang, Chen (2020). "Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial". The Lancet. 395 (10236): 1569–1578. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31022-9. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Hadi A, Werge M, Kristiansen KT, Pedersen UG, Karstensen JG, Novovic S, Gluud LL (June 2020). "Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) associated with severe acute pancreatitis: Case report on three family members". Pancreatology. 20 (4): 665–667. doi:10.1016/j.pan.2020.04.021. PMC 7199002 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32387082 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Occhipinti V, Pastorelli L (May 2020). "Challenges in the Care of IBD Patients During the CoViD-19 Pandemic: Report From a "Red Zone" Area in Northern Italy". Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 26 (6): 793–796. doi:10.1093/ibd/izaa084. PMC 7188155 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32314792 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Ponnurangam Nagarajan V, Palaniyadi A, Sathyamoorthi M, Sasitharan R, Shuba S, Padur Sivaraman R, Scott JX (2012). "Pleural effusion - An unusual cause". Australas Med J. 5 (7): 369–72. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2012.1024. PMC 3413004. PMID 22905065.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Tariq, Raseen; Saha, Srishti; Furqan, Fateeha; Hassett, Leslie; Pardi, Darrell; Khanna, Sahil (2020). "Prevalence and Mortality of COVID-19 patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.06.003. ISSN 0025-6196.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Mao, Ren; Qiu, Yun; He, Jin-Shen; Tan, Jin-Yu; Li, Xue-Hua; Liang, Jie; Shen, Jun; Zhu, Liang-Ru; Chen, Yan; Iacucci, Marietta; Ng, Siew C; Ghosh, Subrata; Chen, Min-Hu (2020). "Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 5 (7): 667–678. doi:10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30126-6. ISSN 2468-1253.
- ↑ Abdalhadi A, Alkhatib M, Mismar AY, Awouda W, Albarqouni L (2020). "Can COVID 19 present like appendicitis?". IDCases. 21: e00860. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2020.e00860. PMC 7265835 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32523872 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ "NIH clinical trial of investigational vaccine for COVID-19 begins | National Institutes of Health (NIH)".
- ↑ "How to Protect Yourself & Others | CDC".
- ↑ Green CA, Quraishi MN, Shabir S, Sharma N, Hansen R, Gaya DR, Hart AL, Loman NJ, Iqbal TH (June 2020). "Screening faecal microbiota transplant donors for SARS-CoV-2 by molecular testing of stool is the safest way forward". Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 5 (6): 531. doi:10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30089-3. PMC 7225406 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32240618 Check|pmid=value (help).
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