Alexander disease: Difference between revisions
MoisesRomo (talk | contribs) No edit summary |
MoisesRomo (talk | contribs) No edit summary |
||
| Line 27: | Line 27: | ||
** Type I (infantile). The most common type of Alexander disease, usually caused by de novo mutations, with an age of onset before 4 years of age. It presents with seizures, macrocephaly, developmental delay, failure to thrive, intractable vomiting, encephalopathy, and classic imaging findings.<ref name="pmid281120502" /><ref name="pmid21917775" /> | ** Type I (infantile). The most common type of Alexander disease, usually caused by de novo mutations, with an age of onset before 4 years of age. It presents with seizures, macrocephaly, developmental delay, failure to thrive, intractable vomiting, encephalopathy, and classic imaging findings.<ref name="pmid281120502" /><ref name="pmid21917775" /> | ||
** Type II (juvenile and adult). Often familial, with an age of onset after 4 years of age. It presents with bulbar dysfunction, palatal myoclonus, autonomic dysfunction, less significant encephalopathy, and atypical imaging findings.<ref name="pmid281120502">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tavasoli A, Armangue T, Ho CY, Whitehead M, Bornhorst M, Rhee J, Hwang EI, Wells EM, Packer R, van der Knaap MS, Bugiani M, Vanderver A |title=Alexander Disease |journal=J. Child Neurol. |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=184–187 |date=February 2017 |pmid=28112050 |doi=10.1177/0883073816673263 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21917775">{{cite journal |vauthors=Prust M, Wang J, Morizono H, Messing A, Brenner M, Gordon E, Hartka T, Sokohl A, Schiffmann R, Gordish-Dressman H, Albin R, Amartino H, Brockman K, Dinopoulos A, Dotti MT, Fain D, Fernandez R, Ferreira J, Fleming J, Gill D, Griebel M, Heilstedt H, Kaplan P, Lewis D, Nakagawa M, Pedersen R, Reddy A, Sawaishi Y, Schneider M, Sherr E, Takiyama Y, Wakabayashi K, Gorospe JR, Vanderver A |title=GFAP mutations, age at onset, and clinical subtypes in Alexander disease |journal=Neurology |volume=77 |issue=13 |pages=1287–94 |date=September 2011 |pmid=21917775 |pmc=3179649 |doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182309f72 |url=}}</ref> | ** Type II (juvenile and adult). Often familial, with an age of onset after 4 years of age. It presents with bulbar dysfunction, palatal myoclonus, autonomic dysfunction, less significant encephalopathy, and atypical imaging findings.<ref name="pmid281120502">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tavasoli A, Armangue T, Ho CY, Whitehead M, Bornhorst M, Rhee J, Hwang EI, Wells EM, Packer R, van der Knaap MS, Bugiani M, Vanderver A |title=Alexander Disease |journal=J. Child Neurol. |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=184–187 |date=February 2017 |pmid=28112050 |doi=10.1177/0883073816673263 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21917775">{{cite journal |vauthors=Prust M, Wang J, Morizono H, Messing A, Brenner M, Gordon E, Hartka T, Sokohl A, Schiffmann R, Gordish-Dressman H, Albin R, Amartino H, Brockman K, Dinopoulos A, Dotti MT, Fain D, Fernandez R, Ferreira J, Fleming J, Gill D, Griebel M, Heilstedt H, Kaplan P, Lewis D, Nakagawa M, Pedersen R, Reddy A, Sawaishi Y, Schneider M, Sherr E, Takiyama Y, Wakabayashi K, Gorospe JR, Vanderver A |title=GFAP mutations, age at onset, and clinical subtypes in Alexander disease |journal=Neurology |volume=77 |issue=13 |pages=1287–94 |date=September 2011 |pmid=21917775 |pmc=3179649 |doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182309f72 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*Some authors propose the inclusion of a neonatal form in the classification of Alexander disease to describe patients with the onset of symptoms within the first month of life.<ref name="pmid10832583">{{cite journal |vauthors=Springer S, Erlewein R, Naegele T, Becker I, Auer D, Grodd W, Krägeloh-Mann I |title=Alexander disease--classification revisited and isolation of a neonatal form |journal=Neuropediatrics |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=86–92 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10832583 |doi=10.1055/s-2000-7479 |url=}}</ref> | |||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
| Line 82: | Line 83: | ||
* The incidence of Alexander disease has not been reported. | * The incidence of Alexander disease has not been reported. | ||
* The prevalence world-wide of Alexander disease has not been reported.<ref name="pmid20301351" /> In a study made by Yoshida et al. in 2012 in Japan, they estimated a prevalence of 1 in 2.7 million population studied.<ref name="pmid29478608" /><ref name="YoshidaNakagawa2012">{{cite journal|last1=Yoshida|first1=Tomokatsu|last2=Nakagawa|first2=Masanori|title=Clinical aspects and pathology of Alexander disease, and morphological and functional alteration of astrocytes induced by GFAP mutation|journal=Neuropathology|volume=32|issue=4|year=2012|pages=440–446|issn=09196544|doi=10.1111/j.1440-1789.2011.01268.x}}</ref> | * The prevalence world-wide of Alexander disease has not been reported.<ref name="pmid20301351" /> In a study made by Yoshida et al. in 2012 in Japan, they estimated a prevalence of 1 in 2.7 million population studied.<ref name="pmid29478608" /><ref name="YoshidaNakagawa2012">{{cite journal|last1=Yoshida|first1=Tomokatsu|last2=Nakagawa|first2=Masanori|title=Clinical aspects and pathology of Alexander disease, and morphological and functional alteration of astrocytes induced by GFAP mutation|journal=Neuropathology|volume=32|issue=4|year=2012|pages=440–446|issn=09196544|doi=10.1111/j.1440-1789.2011.01268.x}}</ref> | ||
* Patients of all age groups may develop Alexander disease, but it infantile (type I) form is more common, with presentation appearing usually before 2 years of age.<ref name="pmid281120502" /> | * Patients of all age groups may develop Alexander disease, but it infantile (type I) form is more common, with presentation appearing usually before 2 years of age.<ref name="pmid281120502" /> | ||
* There is no gender predilection to Alexander disease.<ref name="pmid29478608" /> | * There is no gender predilection to Alexander disease.<ref name="pmid29478608" /> | ||
* There is no racial predilection to Alexander disease.<ref name="pmid29478608" /> | * There is no racial predilection to Alexander disease.<ref name="pmid29478608" /> | ||
| Line 89: | Line 90: | ||
==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
The risk to other family members depends on the genetic status of the proband's parents (if they present with a ''GFAP'' pathogenic variant). | * There are no established risk factors for developing Alexander disease. | ||
* The risk to other family members depends on the genetic status of the proband's parents (if they present with a ''GFAP'' pathogenic variant).<ref name="pmid20301351" /> | |||
==Screening== | ==Screening== | ||
| Line 121: | Line 110: | ||
* Individuals with type I of Alexander disease typically do not reproduce.<ref name="pmid20301351" /> | * Individuals with type I of Alexander disease typically do not reproduce.<ref name="pmid20301351" /> | ||
The prognosis is generally poor. With early onset, death usually occurs within 10 years after the onset of symptoms. Usually, the later the disease occurs, the slower its course is. | * The prognosis of individuals with Alexander disease is generally poor. With early onset, death usually occurs within 10 years after the onset of symptoms in infantile forms (type I). Usually, the later the disease occurs, the slower its course is.<ref name="pmid20301351" /> | ||
* In some cases of the adult form, patients present no symptoms.<ref name="url308 Permanent Redirect">{{cite web |url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/alexander_disease/alexander_disease.htm |title=308 Permanent Redirect |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
If left untreated, [#]% of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3]. | If left untreated, [#]% of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3]. | ||
| Line 132: | Line 122: | ||
Prognosis is generally excellent/good/poor, and the 1/5/10-year mortality/survival rate of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#]%. | Prognosis is generally excellent/good/poor, and the 1/5/10-year mortality/survival rate of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#]%. | ||
The for individuals with Alexander disease is generally poor and typically depends of the specific form. People with the neonatal form usually have the worst prognosis. Most children with the infantile form do not survive past the age of 6. The juvenile and adult forms of the disorder have a slower, more lengthy course. The adult form varies greatly and, in some cases, there are no symptoms.[2] | |||
==Diagnosis== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
| Line 199: | Line 191: | ||
=== Laboratory Findings === | === Laboratory Findings === | ||
* CSF may disclose an increased levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein and αβ-crystallin and heat shock protein 27 in individuals with Alexander disease.<ref name="pmid16217707">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kyllerman M, Rosengren L, Wiklund LM, Holmberg E |title=Increased levels of GFAP in the cerebrospinal fluid in three subtypes of genetically confirmed Alexander disease |journal=Neuropediatrics |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=319–23 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16217707 |doi=10.1055/s-2005-872876 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20301351" /> | * CSF may disclose an increased levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein and αβ-crystallin and heat shock protein 27 in individuals with Alexander disease.<ref name="pmid16217707">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kyllerman M, Rosengren L, Wiklund LM, Holmberg E |title=Increased levels of GFAP in the cerebrospinal fluid in three subtypes of genetically confirmed Alexander disease |journal=Neuropediatrics |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=319–23 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16217707 |doi=10.1055/s-2005-872876 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20301351" /> | ||
An elevated/reduced concentration of serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name]. | An elevated/reduced concentration of serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name]. | ||
Revision as of 04:55, 26 July 2020
|
WikiDoc Resources for Alexander disease |
|
Articles |
|---|
|
Most recent articles on Alexander disease Most cited articles on Alexander disease |
|
Media |
|
Powerpoint slides on Alexander disease |
|
Evidence Based Medicine |
|
Cochrane Collaboration on Alexander disease |
|
Clinical Trials |
|
Ongoing Trials on Alexander disease at Clinical Trials.gov Trial results on Alexander disease Clinical Trials on Alexander disease at Google
|
|
Guidelines / Policies / Govt |
|
US National Guidelines Clearinghouse on Alexander disease NICE Guidance on Alexander disease
|
|
Books |
|
News |
|
Commentary |
|
Definitions |
|
Patient Resources / Community |
|
Patient resources on Alexander disease Discussion groups on Alexander disease Patient Handouts on Alexander disease Directions to Hospitals Treating Alexander disease Risk calculators and risk factors for Alexander disease
|
|
Healthcare Provider Resources |
|
Causes & Risk Factors for Alexander disease |
|
Continuing Medical Education (CME) |
|
International |
|
|
|
Business |
|
Experimental / Informatics |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Moises Romo M.D.
Synonyms and keywords: Dysmyelogenic leukodystrophy, Dysmyelogenic leukodystrophy-megalobare, Fibrinoid degeneration of astrocytes, Fibrinoid leukodystrophy, Hyaline panneuropathy, Leukodystrophy with Rosenthal fibers, Megalencephaly with hyaline inclusion, Megalencephaly with hyaline panneuropathy
Template:DiseaseDisorder infobox
Overview
Alexander disease is a slowly progressing and fatal neurodegenerative disease. It is a very rare disorder which results from a genetic mutation and mostly affects infants and children, causing developmental delay and changes in physical characteristics.
Historical Perspective
- Alexander disease was first described in 1949 by the New Zealand pathologist William Alexander in London, England under his paper "Progressive Fibrinoid degeneration of fibrillary astrocytes associated with mental retardation in a hydrocephalic infant", where he reported a case of a 16-month old child who died after presenting a history of increasing macrocephaly and developmental delay.[1]
- In 1959, Wohwill et al. reported the case of sibilings with Alexander disease phenotype and suggested the possibility of an autosomal recessive transmission.
- By the decade of 1960´s, the presence of Rosenthal fibers accompanied by the destruction of white matter and progressive neurologic imapairment was recognized as the hallmark of patients with Alexander disease.[2][1][3]
- In 2001, Brenner et. al discovered that mutations in GFAP encoding for glial fibrillary acidic protein, could be the causant of most of the cases of Alexander disease.[4][1]
Classification
- Alexander disease is classified according to the age of onset and clinical course as:
- Type I (infantile). The most common type of Alexander disease, usually caused by de novo mutations, with an age of onset before 4 years of age. It presents with seizures, macrocephaly, developmental delay, failure to thrive, intractable vomiting, encephalopathy, and classic imaging findings.[5][6]
- Type II (juvenile and adult). Often familial, with an age of onset after 4 years of age. It presents with bulbar dysfunction, palatal myoclonus, autonomic dysfunction, less significant encephalopathy, and atypical imaging findings.[5][6]
- Some authors propose the inclusion of a neonatal form in the classification of Alexander disease to describe patients with the onset of symptoms within the first month of life.[7]
Pathophysiology
- Alexander disease is an astrocytopathy that belongs to the group of disorders called leukodystrophies, which affect growth or development of the myelin sheath.[8]
- Alexander disease is characterized by a white matter destruction in the midbrain and cerebellum.[5][9]
- The destruction of white matter destruction in the central nervous system (CNS) is accompanied by the formation of fibrous, eosinophilic deposits known as Rosenthal fibers.[8]
- Mutated glial fibrillary acidic protein accumulates which in turn aggregates astrocytes to form the so called Rosenthal fibers.[10]
- Rosenthal fibers are known to be the major contributer in the pathogenesis of Alexander disease and its accumulation in especific sites may cause obstructive hydrocephalus.[11][12][13]
- Glial fibrillary acidic protein accumulation causes an overload of long-chain fatty acids in the brain, which induces T-cells infiltrates that destroy the myelin sheath.[14][5]
Pathogenesis
- The most accepted proposed mechanism to explain Alexander disease is as follows:[15]
- The accumulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (PAFG) and the consequent formation of characteristic aggregates, called Rosenthal fibers in various cell types, and especially astrocytes.
- The accumulation appears to be due to a gain in function due to the mutation that partially blocks the assembly of the PAFG filaments.[16]
- Subsequent sequestration of ubiquitin and the α-B-crystalline chaperone proteins and HSP27 in the Rosenthal fibers.
- Activation of both the Jnk protein and the stress response.
Genetics
- Individuals with Alexander diseasepresent a mutation in the gene GFAP that maps to chromosome 17q21.[1][5][6]
- When inherited, Alexander disease is transmitted in an autosomal dominant manner.
- Penetrance appears to be close to 100% in patients with Alexander disease type I.[17]
Gross Pathology
- The main features in brain biopsies of patients with Alexander disease are Rosenthal fibers accumulation (mostly in the superficial cortex) and loss of myelin from the white matter.[18]
- It may be challenging to differentiate mass-like lesions in Alexander disease from low-grade astrocytomas due to the proliferative nature of the astrocytic lesions; one finding that may separate Alexander disease is the presence of biphasic morphology and eosinophylic granular bodies.[5]
Causes
- The cause of Alexander disease is a mutation in one or more exons of the gene GFAP, encoding for glial fibrillary acidic protein:[1][5][6]
- Exon 1 (45.5% of cases)
- Exon 3 (3.3% of cases)
- Exon 4 (27.2% of cases)
- Exon 5 (1.8% of cases)
- Exon 6 (16.0% of cases)
- Exon 7 (<1% of cases)
- Exon 8 (7.5% of cases).
Differentiating Alexander disease from Other Diseases
- Alexander disease must be differentiated from other diseases that affect the white matter such as:
- X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy
- Krabbe disease
- Canavan disease
- Arylsulfatase A deficiency
- Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy
Epidemiology and Demographics
- Alexander disease is a rare condition; since the description of the first affected individual until 2015, only 550 cases have been reported.[19]
- The incidence of Alexander disease has not been reported.
- The prevalence world-wide of Alexander disease has not been reported.[19] In a study made by Yoshida et al. in 2012 in Japan, they estimated a prevalence of 1 in 2.7 million population studied.[1][20]
- Patients of all age groups may develop Alexander disease, but it infantile (type I) form is more common, with presentation appearing usually before 2 years of age.[5]
- There is no gender predilection to Alexander disease.[1]
- There is no racial predilection to Alexander disease.[1]
- There is no geographic predilection to Alexander disease.[1]
- There is no economic predilection to Alexander disease.[1]
Risk Factors
- There are no established risk factors for developing Alexander disease.
- The risk to other family members depends on the genetic status of the proband's parents (if they present with a GFAP pathogenic variant).[19]
Screening
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for [disease/malignancy].
OR
According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] is not recommended.
OR
According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] by [test 1] is recommended every [duration] among patients with [condition 1], [condition 2], and [condition 3].
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
- Life expectancy in individuals with Alexander disease is variable.[19]
- Individuals with type I of Alexander disease typically do not reproduce.[19]
- The prognosis of individuals with Alexander disease is generally poor. With early onset, death usually occurs within 10 years after the onset of symptoms in infantile forms (type I). Usually, the later the disease occurs, the slower its course is.[19]
- In some cases of the adult form, patients present no symptoms.[21]
If left untreated, [#]% of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].
OR
Common complications of [disease name] include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].
OR
Prognosis is generally excellent/good/poor, and the 1/5/10-year mortality/survival rate of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#]%.
The for individuals with Alexander disease is generally poor and typically depends of the specific form. People with the neonatal form usually have the worst prognosis. Most children with the infantile form do not survive past the age of 6. The juvenile and adult forms of the disorder have a slower, more lengthy course. The adult form varies greatly and, in some cases, there are no symptoms.[2]
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met: [criterion 1], [criterion 2], [criterion 3], and [criterion 4].
OR
The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [criteria name] criteria, which include [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].
OR
The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [definition name] definition, which includes [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].
OR
There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of [disease name].
History and Symptoms
History
Common symptoms
- Common symptoms of Alexander disease include:[6][11][22]
- Type I:
- Seizures
- Macrocephaly
- Encephalopathy
- Paroxysmal deterioration
- Failure to thrive
- Developemental delay
- Focal mass-like lesions
- Type II:
- Atonomic dysfunction
- Bulbar symptoms
- Ocular movement abnormalities
- Palatal myoclonus
- Type I:
Less common symptoms
- Less common symptoms of Alexander disease include:[6]
- Dysarthria
- Sleep disturbance
- Dysphonia
- Gait disturbance
- Frequent emesis
- Hiccups
- Frequent vomiting
- Dementia
Physical Examination
Patients with [disease name] usually appear [general appearance]. Physical examination of patients with [disease name] is usually remarkable for [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
OR
Common physical examination findings of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
OR
The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is diagnostic of [disease name].
OR
The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is highly suggestive of [disease name].
Laboratory Findings
- CSF may disclose an increased levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein and αβ-crystallin and heat shock protein 27 in individuals with Alexander disease.[23][19]
An elevated/reduced concentration of serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].
OR
Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].
OR
[Test] is usually normal among patients with [disease name].
OR
Some patients with [disease name] may have elevated/reduced concentration of [test], which is usually suggestive of [progression/complication].
OR
There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with [disease name].
Electrocardiogram
There are no ECG findings associated with [disease name].
OR
An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an ECG suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
X-ray
There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name].
OR
An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
OR
There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name]. However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].
Echocardiography or Ultrasound
There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name].
OR
Echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
OR
There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name]. However, an echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].
CT scan
- Alexander disease may show the following findings in a head CT scan:
- Decreased density of white matter
- Frontal lobe predominance
- +/- Dilated lateral ventricles
MRI
- Type I Alexander disease has the following findings on MRI of the CNS:[24]
- Frontal predominance of central white matter involvement manifested by T2 hyperintensity and T1 hypointensity
- Periventricular rim of T2 hypointensity and T1 hyperintensity
- Abnormal T2 signal, swelling or atrophy of basal ganglia/thalamus
- Abnormal T2 signal of the brain stem
- Contrast enhancement of selected structures
Other Imaging Findings
There are no other imaging findings associated with [disease name].
OR
[Imaging modality] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an [imaging modality] suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
Other Diagnostic Studies
- Electroencephalogram in Alexander disease may show slow activity, whichis much more prominent over the anterior than posterior regions.[18]
There are no other diagnostic studies associated with [disease name].
OR
[Diagnostic study] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
OR
Other diagnostic studies for [disease name] include [diagnostic study 1], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3], and [diagnostic study 2], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].
Treatment
There is neither cure nor standard treatment for Alexander disease. All treatment is symptomatic and supportive, for example antibiotics for intercurrent infection and anticonvulsants for seizure control are usually used.
Medical Therapy
Surgery
Primary Prevention
- There are no established measures for the primary prevention of Alexander disease.
Secondary Prevention
- Multidisciplinary care should be implemented in regular visits to early detect and treat progression of nutritional status, swallowing ability, strength, mobility, and early signs of scoliosis in patients with Alexander disease.[19]
See also
External links
- alexander at NIH/UW GeneTests
- The Stennis Foundation - Registered charity committed to raising awareness and funds for Leukodystrophies research
- The Stennis Foundation's MySpace site
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Messing A (2018). "Alexander disease". Handb Clin Neurol. 148: 693–700. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64076-5.00044-2. PMID 29478608.
- ↑ Seil, Fredrick J. (1968). "Alexander's Disease in an Adult". Archives of Neurology. 19 (5): 494. doi:10.1001/archneur.1968.00480050064006. ISSN 0003-9942.
- ↑ Balbi, Pietro; Salvini, Silvana; Fundarò, Cira; Frazzitta, Giuseppe; Maestri, Roberto; Mosah, Dibo; Uggetti, Carla; Sechi, GianPietro (2010). "The clinical spectrum of late-onset Alexander disease: a systematic literature review". Journal of Neurology. 257 (12): 1955–1962. doi:10.1007/s00415-010-5706-1. ISSN 0340-5354.
- ↑ Brenner, Michael; Lampel, Keith; Nakatani, Yoshihiro; Mill, John; Banner, Carl; Mearow, Karen; Dohadwala, Mariam; Lipsky, Robert; Freese, Ernst (1990). "Characterization of human cDNA and genomic clones for glial fibrillary acidic protein". Molecular Brain Research. 7 (4): 277–286. doi:10.1016/0169-328X(90)90078-R. ISSN 0169-328X.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Tavasoli A, Armangue T, Ho CY, Whitehead M, Bornhorst M, Rhee J, Hwang EI, Wells EM, Packer R, van der Knaap MS, Bugiani M, Vanderver A (February 2017). "Alexander Disease". J. Child Neurol. 32 (2): 184–187. doi:10.1177/0883073816673263. PMID 28112050.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Prust M, Wang J, Morizono H, Messing A, Brenner M, Gordon E, Hartka T, Sokohl A, Schiffmann R, Gordish-Dressman H, Albin R, Amartino H, Brockman K, Dinopoulos A, Dotti MT, Fain D, Fernandez R, Ferreira J, Fleming J, Gill D, Griebel M, Heilstedt H, Kaplan P, Lewis D, Nakagawa M, Pedersen R, Reddy A, Sawaishi Y, Schneider M, Sherr E, Takiyama Y, Wakabayashi K, Gorospe JR, Vanderver A (September 2011). "GFAP mutations, age at onset, and clinical subtypes in Alexander disease". Neurology. 77 (13): 1287–94. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182309f72. PMC 3179649. PMID 21917775.
- ↑ Springer S, Erlewein R, Naegele T, Becker I, Auer D, Grodd W, Krägeloh-Mann I (April 2000). "Alexander disease--classification revisited and isolation of a neonatal form". Neuropediatrics. 31 (2): 86–92. doi:10.1055/s-2000-7479. PMID 10832583.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Alexander Disease Information Page | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke".
- ↑ Johnson AB (May 2004). "Alexander disease: a leukodystrophy caused by a mutation in GFAP". Neurochem. Res. 29 (5): 961–4. doi:10.1023/b:nere.0000021240.30518.2c. PMID 15139294.
- ↑ Rodriguez D, Gauthier F, Bertini E, Bugiani M, Brenner M, N'guyen S, Goizet C, Gelot A, Surtees R, Pedespan JM, Hernandorena X, Troncoso M, Uziel G, Messing A, Ponsot G, Pham-Dinh D, Dautigny A, Boespflug-Tanguy O (November 2001). "Infantile Alexander disease: spectrum of GFAP mutations and genotype-phenotype correlation". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 69 (5): 1134–40. doi:10.1086/323799. PMC 1274357. PMID 11567214.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Vázquez, E.; Macaya, A.; Mayolas, N.; Arévalo, S.; Poca, M.A.; Enríquez, G. (2008). "Neonatal Alexander Disease: MR Imaging Prenatal Diagnosis". American Journal of Neuroradiology. 29 (10): 1973–1975. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A1215. ISSN 0195-6108.
- ↑ Garcia, Leonardo; Gascon, Generoso; Ozand, Pinar; Yaish, Hassan (2016). "Increased Intracranial Pressure in Alexander Disease: A Rare Presentation of White-Matter Disease". Journal of Child Neurology. 7 (2): 168–171. doi:10.1177/088307389200700206. ISSN 0883-0738.
- ↑ Lee JM, Kim AS, Lee SJ, Cho SM, Lee DS, Choi SM, Kim DK, Ki CS, Kim JW (October 2006). "A case of infantile Alexander disease accompanied by infantile spasms diagnosed by DNA analysis". J. Korean Med. Sci. 21 (5): 954–7. doi:10.3346/jkms.2006.21.5.954. PMC 2722014. PMID 17043438.
- ↑ Olabarria M, Putilina M, Riemer EC, Goldman JE (October 2015). "Astrocyte pathology in Alexander disease causes a marked inflammatory environment". Acta Neuropathol. 130 (4): 469–86. doi:10.1007/s00401-015-1469-1. PMID 26296699.
- ↑ Quinlan RA, Brenner M, Goldman JE, Messing A (June 2007). "GFAP and its role in Alexander disease". Exp. Cell Res. 313 (10): 2077–87. doi:10.1016/j.yexcr.2007.04.004. PMC 2702672. PMID 17498694.
- ↑ Johnson AB (2002). "Alexander disease: a review and the gene". Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 20 (3–5): 391–4. doi:10.1016/s0736-5748(02)00045-x. PMID 12175878.
- ↑ Messing A, Brenner M (February 2003). "Alexander disease: GFAP mutations unify young and old". Lancet Neurol. 2 (2): 75. doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(03)00301-6. PMID 12849260.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Pridmore, Clare L.; Baraitser, Michael; Harding, Brian; Boyd, Stewart G.; Kendall, Brian; Brett, Edward M. (2016). "Alexander's Disease: Clues to Diagnosis". Journal of Child Neurology. 8 (2): 134–144. doi:10.1177/088307389300800205. ISSN 0883-0738.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean L, Stephens K, Amemiya A, Srivastava S, Naidu S. PMID 20301351. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ Yoshida, Tomokatsu; Nakagawa, Masanori (2012). "Clinical aspects and pathology of Alexander disease, and morphological and functional alteration of astrocytes induced by GFAP mutation". Neuropathology. 32 (4): 440–446. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1789.2011.01268.x. ISSN 0919-6544.
- ↑ "308 Permanent Redirect".
- ↑ Johnson AB (2002). "Alexander disease: a review and the gene". Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 20 (3–5): 391–4. doi:10.1016/s0736-5748(02)00045-x. PMID 12175878.
- ↑ Kyllerman M, Rosengren L, Wiklund LM, Holmberg E (October 2005). "Increased levels of GFAP in the cerebrospinal fluid in three subtypes of genetically confirmed Alexander disease". Neuropediatrics. 36 (5): 319–23. doi:10.1055/s-2005-872876. PMID 16217707.
- ↑ Tavasoli A, Armangue T, Ho CY, Whitehead M, Bornhorst M, Rhee J, Hwang EI, Wells EM, Packer R, van der Knaap MS, Bugiani M, Vanderver A (February 2017). "Alexander Disease". J. Child Neurol. 32 (2): 184–187. doi:10.1177/0883073816673263. PMID 28112050.