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==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
Hypokalemia | [[Hypokalemia]] might be the result of excessive K loss ([[renal]] or extra-renal losses), insufficient intake, or increased [[transcellular]] shift of the [[potassium]] to the [[intracellular]] space.<ref name="PalmerClegg2016">{{cite journal|last1=Palmer|first1=Biff F.|last2=Clegg|first2=Deborah J.|title=Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis|journal=Advances in Physiology Education|volume=40|issue=4|year=2016|pages=480–490|issn=1043-4046|doi=10.1152/advan.00121.2016}}</ref> | ||
* Perhaps the most obvious cause is insufficient [[eating|consumption]] of potassium (that is, a low-potassium diet). However, without excessive potassium loss from the body, this is a rare cause of hypokalemia. [[Alcoholism]], [[anorexia nervosa]], dental problems and [[dysphagia]] can all impair food intake and cause hypokalemia. In the hospital setting, hypokalemia can present in patients on total parenteral nutrition or potassium-free IV fluids. | * Perhaps the most obvious cause is insufficient [[eating|consumption]] of potassium (that is, a low-potassium diet). However, without excessive potassium loss from the body, this is a rare cause of hypokalemia. [[Alcoholism]], [[anorexia nervosa]], dental problems and [[dysphagia]] can all impair food intake and cause hypokalemia. In the hospital setting, hypokalemia can present in patients on total parenteral nutrition or potassium-free IV fluids. | ||
Latest revision as of 12:37, 27 July 2020
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Hypokalemia causes On the Web |
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor-In-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]; Aditya Govindavarjhulla, M.B.B.S. [3], Aida Javanbakht, M.D.; Assistant Editor(s)-In-Chief: Jack Khouri
Overview
The etiology of hypokalemia can be quite difficult to diagnose. As a matter of fact, many organ systems are involved in the regulation of potassium level and any derangement to their normal function can cause hypokalemia. Drugs, diarrhea, kidney disease, endocrine diseases and many others are potential culprits. Hypokalemia can be the consequence of decreased ingestion, increased losses (renal, GI or excessive sweating) or transcellular shift from the extracellular to the intracellular compartment. The most common causes are diarrhea, vomiting and diuretic use (mostly loop and thiazide diuretics).
Causes
Hypokalemia might be the result of excessive K loss (renal or extra-renal losses), insufficient intake, or increased transcellular shift of the potassium to the intracellular space.[1]
- Perhaps the most obvious cause is insufficient consumption of potassium (that is, a low-potassium diet). However, without excessive potassium loss from the body, this is a rare cause of hypokalemia. Alcoholism, anorexia nervosa, dental problems and dysphagia can all impair food intake and cause hypokalemia. In the hospital setting, hypokalemia can present in patients on total parenteral nutrition or potassium-free IV fluids.
- Excessive loss of potassium, often associated with excess water loss, which "flushes" potassium out of the body. Typically, this is a consequence of GI losses (vomiting and diarrhea), or excessive perspiration.
- Increased urinary losses:
- Certain medications can accelerate the removal of potassium from the body; including thiazide diuretics, such as hydrochlorothiazide; loop diuretics, such as furosemide; as well as various laxatives. The antifungal amphotericin B has also been associated with hypokalemia.
- A special case of potassium loss occurs with diabetic ketoacidosis. In addition to urinary losses from polyuria and volume contraction, there is also obligate loss of potassium from kidney tubules as a cationic partner to the negatively charged ketone, β-hydroxybutyrate.
- Hypomagnesemia can cause hypokalemia. Magnesium is required for adequate processing of potassium. This may become evident when hypokalemia persists despite potassium supplementation. Other electrolyte abnormalities may also be present.
- Disease states that lead to abnormally high aldosterone levels can cause hypertension and excessive urinary losses of potassium. These include renal artery stenosis and tumors (generally non-malignant) of the adrenal glands. Hypertension and hypokalemia can also be seen with a deficiency of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme which allows cortisol to stimulate aldosterone receptors. This deficiency can either be congenital or caused by consumption of glycyrrhizin, which is contained in extract of licorice, sometimes found in Herbal supplements, candies and chewing tobacco.
- Rare hereditary defects of renal salt transporters, such as Bartter syndrome or Gitelman syndrome can cause hypokalemia, in a manner similar to that of diuretics.
- Transcellular potassium shift to the intracellular space:
- Increased extracellular pH (each 0.11 unit increase in pH corresponds to a 0.4 meq/l decrease in potassium level)
- Elevated insulin
- Elevated beta-adrenergic activity (stress, beta-agonist intake, etc)
- Rare hereditary defects of muscular ion channels and transporters that cause hypokalemic periodic paralysis can precipitate occasional attacks of severe hypokalemia and muscle weakness. These defects cause a heightened sensitivity to catechols and/or insulin and/or thyroid hormone that lead to sudden influx of potassium from the extracellular fluid into the muscle cells.
- Hypothermia
- Thyrotoxicosis
- Theophylline
- Rapid expansion of cell mass (eg, during refeeding after prolonged starvation, when patients with pernicious anemia are treated with vitamin B12 and with tumors having rapid cell turnover)
Common Causes
- Acid Base Imbalance
- Alcoholism
- Aldosteronism
- Alkalosis
- Corticosteroid medications
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Diarrhea
- Diuretic use
Causes by Organ System
Causes in Alphabetical Order [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]
- Ammonium Chloride
- Apparent mineralocorticoid excess
- Chronic pyelonephritis
- Acid Base Imbalance
- Ackee Fruit Food poisoning
- Acute liver failure
- Acute myeloid leukemia
- Alcoholism
- Aldosteronism
- Alkalosis
- Aloe poisoning
- Amikacin
- Aminophylline
- Amitraz
- Amphotericin B
- Anidulafungin
- Anorexia nervosa
- Arsenic trioxide
- Artemether and lumefantrin
- Bartter's syndrome
- Beer drinker syndrome
- Bendrofluazide
- Bowel fistulae
- Bowel obstruction
- Bufotenine poisoning
- Bulimia nervosa
- Bumetanide
- Calcium resonium
- Carbenoxolone
- Cascara sagrada
- Caspofungin
- Cetuximab
- Chloridorrhea
- Chlorothiazide
- Chlortalidone
- Cholera
- Cyanocobalamin
- Classic Distal Renal Tubular Acidosis
- Clopamide
- Colonic villous adenomata
- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
- Congenital chloride diarrhea
- Conn's Syndrome
- Corticosteroid medications
- Cortisol 11 beta ketoreductase deficiency
- Cushing's Syndrome
- Cyclopenthiazide
- Cytarabine
- Diabetes
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Diarrhea
- Diuretic use
- Drip arm sample
- Eating disorders
- Eribulin
- Etacrynic acid
- Excessive sweating
- Fanconi renotubular syndrome
- Frusemide
- Functioning pancreatic endocrine tumor
- Gastric fistula
- Gastro enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor
- Gentamicin
- Gitelman syndrome
- Glucocorticoid resistance
- Glycyrrhizic acid
| style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top; " |
- Gullner Syndrome
- Heart failure
- Herbal Agent overdose
- Hydrochlorothiazide
- Hydroflumethiazide
- Hyperaldosteronism
- Hyperreninemic Hypoaldosteronism
- Hypertension
- Hypokalaemic distal renal tubular acidosis
- Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
- Hypomagnesemia
- Hypothermia
- Imatinib mesylate
- Inadequate potassium in diet
- Indapamide
- Insulin
- Iodine overuse
- IV fluids
- Ixabepilone
- Kanamycin
- Laxative abuse
- Licorice
- Liddle syndrome
- Lightwood Albright syndrome
- Lithium
- Liver Cirrhosis
- Losartan and Hydrochlorothiazide
- Mayapple poisoning
- Methyclothiazide
- Metolazone
- Mifepristone
- Mineralocorticoid excess
- Netilmicin
- Organophosphates
- Panitumumab
- Para amino salicylic acid
- Penicillin
- Phenolphthalein
- Polythiazide
- Post operative
- Prednisolone
- Primary aldosteronism
- Proximal renal tubular acidosis
- Pyelonephritis
- Refeeding syndrome
- Renal tubular acidosis
- Reproterol
- Ritodrine
- Salbutamol
- Secondary aldosteronism
- SIADH
- Sjogren's Syndrome
- Sodium polystyrene sulfonate
- Sorafenib
- Steroids
- Tacrolimus
- Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate
- Thiazides
- Thyrotoxicosis
- Tiagabine
- Toluene
- Trichlormethiazide
- Tumors
- Ureterosigmoidostomy
- Urinary tract obstruction
- VIPoma
- Vomiting
- Voriconazole
References
- ↑ Palmer, Biff F.; Clegg, Deborah J. (2016). "Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis". Advances in Physiology Education. 40 (4): 480–490. doi:10.1152/advan.00121.2016. ISSN 1043-4046.
- ↑ Veltri KT, Mason C (March 2015). "Medication-induced hypokalemia". P T. 40 (3): 185–90. PMC 4357351. PMID 25798039.
- ↑ Marti G, Schwarz C, Leichtle AB, Fiedler GM, Arampatzis S, Exadaktylos AK, Lindner G (February 2014). "Etiology and symptoms of severe hypokalemia in emergency department patients". Eur J Emerg Med. 21 (1): 46–51. doi:10.1097/MEJ.0b013e3283643801. PMID 23839104.
- ↑ Wojtaszek E, Matuszkiewicz-Rowińska J (2013). "[Hypokalemia]". Wiad. Lek. (in Polish). 66 (4): 290–3. PMID 24490479.
- ↑ Jensen HK, Brabrand M, Vinholt PJ, Hallas J, Lassen AT (January 2015). "Hypokalemia in acute medical patients: risk factors and prognosis". Am. J. Med. 128 (1): 60–7.e1. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2014.07.022. PMID 25107385.
- ↑ Lodin K, Palmér M (December 2015). "[Investigation of hypokalemia]". Lakartidningen (in Swedish). 112. PMID 26671430.
- ↑ Trefz FM, Lorch A, Zitzl J, Kutschke A, Knubben-Schweizer G, Lorenz I (2015). "Risk factors for the development of hypokalemia in neonatal diarrheic calves". J. Vet. Intern. Med. 29 (2): 688–95. doi:10.1111/jvim.12541. PMC 4895488. PMID 25818223.
- ↑ Alscher MD (October 2016). "["The silent killer: hyper- and hypokalaemia"]". Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. (in German). 141 (21): 1531–1536. doi:10.1055/s-0042-109043. PMID 27750339.
- ↑ Vavruk AM, Martins C, Nascimento MM, Hayashi SY, Riella MC (2012). "[Association between hypokalemia, malnutrition and mortality in peritoneal dialysis patients]". J Bras Nefrol (in Portuguese). 34 (4): 349–54. PMID 23318823.
- ↑ Gennari FJ (August 1998). "Hypokalemia". N. Engl. J. Med. 339 (7): 451–8. doi:10.1056/NEJM199808133390707. PMID 9700180.