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==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life Threatening Causes===
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
Life-threatening causes include conditions that may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
* [[Life threatening cause 1]]
* [[Life threatening cause 2]]
* [[Life threatening cause 3]]
 
===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
* [[Common cause 1]]
{{familytree/start}}
* [[Common cause 2]]
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | B01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | B01=[[Cyanosis]]}}
* [[Common cause 3]]
{{familytree | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| }}
* [[Common cause 4]]
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | C02 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | C03 |C02=Central cyanosis|C03=Peripheral cyanosis}}
* [[Common cause 5]]
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | |!| }}
 
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | G01 | | | | | | G02 | | | | | | G03 | | | | | | G04 | | | | D02 |G01=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 12em; padding:1em;"> '''Hematologic abnormalities:''' <ref name="pmid29439874">{{cite journal |vauthors=Martínez de Zabarte Fernández JM, García Íñiguez JP, Domínguez Cajal M |title=Metahemoglobinemia in infants over one year |journal=Med Clin (Barc) |volume= |issue= |pages= |date=February 2018 |pmid=29439874 |doi=10.1016/j.medcli.2017.12.009 |url=}}</ref><br>
❑ [[Methemoglobinemia]] (congenital or acquired)<br>
❑ [[Sulfhemoglobinemia]] (acquired)<br>
❑ Hemoglobin mutations with low oxygen affinity:<br>
:❑ Hb Kansas<br>
:❑ Hb Beth israel<br>
:❑ Hb Saint Mande<br>
:❑ Hb Bruxells<br>
❑ [[Polycythemia vera]]<br>
❑ [[Disseminated intravascular coagulation]]<br>'''Metabolic disorders:'''<br>
❑ Severe [[hypoglycemia]]<br>
❑ [[Inborn error of metabolism|Inborn errors of metabolism]]<br>'''Miscellaneous''': <br>
❑  [[:Category:Drugs|Drugs]] and [[Chemical substance|chemicals]]: <ref name="pmid29171648">{{cite journal |vauthors=Günal E, Akkuş Y, Çığşar G, Çiftçi H, Kahramanca Ş, Özdemir M |title=Methemoglobinemia incidence after the application of lidocaine for small surgical procedures |journal=Agri |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=173–176 |date=October 2017 |pmid=29171648 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15249969">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hilbert P, Zur Nieden K |title=[Suicidal fatal beta-blocker intoxication] |language=German |journal=Anaesthesist |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=826–9 |date=September 2004 |pmid=15249969 |doi=10.1007/s00101-004-0721-1 |url=}}</ref> <br>
:❑ [[Beta blockers]] <br>
:❑ [[Nitrite]] or nitrate-containing compounds (eg, [[nitroglycerin]]) <br>
:❑ [[Dapsone]] <br>
:❑ [[Sulfonamides]] <br>
:❑ [[Benzocaine]] <br>
:❑ [[Chloroquine]] <br>
:❑ [[Heroin]] <br>
❑ Venomous [[snakebites]] <ref name="pmid25866646">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hifumi T, Sakai A, Kondo Y, Yamamoto A, Morine N, Ato M, Shibayama K, Umezawa K, Kiriu N, Kato H, Koido Y, Inoue J, Kawakita K, Kuroda Y |title=Venomous snake bites: clinical diagnosis and treatment |journal=J Intensive Care |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=16 |date= 2015 |pmid=25866646 |pmc=4393627 |doi=10.1186/s40560-015-0081-8 |url=}}</ref>
❑ Brief resolved unexplained events (BRUE) <ref name="pmid28722926">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kondamudi NP, Virji M |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28722926 |doi= |url=}}</ref> <br>
❑ [[Altitude sickness|High altitude]] <ref name="pmid28613569">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jensen JD, Vincent AL |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28613569 |doi= |url=}}</ref> <br>
❑ [[Congenital diaphragmatic hernia]] <br>
❑ [[Cirrhosis of liver]] <br>
❑ [[Drowning]] <br>
❑ Chocking <br>
❑ Hanging <br>
❑ [[Hypothermia]]<br>|G02=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 12em; padding:1em;"> '''Hypoventilation:''': <br>'''Upper airway obstruction:''' <ref name="pmid29261942">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gossman WG, Burns B |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=29261942 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14620600">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zoorob RJ, Campbell JS |title=Acute dyspnea in the office |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=1803–10 |date=November 2003 |pmid=14620600 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
❑ [[Foreign body aspiration]] <br>
❑ [[Pertussis]] / [[Croup]] <br>
❑ [[Epiglottitis]] <br>
❑ [[Tracheitis|Bacterial tracheitis]] <br>
❑ Traumatic disruption (thermal injury, fractures) <br>
❑ [[Acute chest syndrome]] <ref name="pmid29279787">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jain S, Bakshi N, Krishnamurti L |title=Acute Chest Syndrome in Children with Sickle Cell Disease |journal=Pediatr Allergy Immunol Pulmonol |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=191–201 |date=December 2017 |pmid=29279787 |pmc=5733742 |doi=10.1089/ped.2017.0814 |url=}}</ref>
❑ Congenital airway abnormalities: <br>
:❑ [[Choanal atresia]] <br>
:❑ [[Laryngotracheomalacia]]  <br>
:❑ [[Macroglossia]]  <br>
:❑ [[Micrognathia]] or [[Retrognathism|retrognathia]] (eg, Pierre-Robin syndrome)  <br>
'''Neurologic abnormalities:''' <ref name="pmid28722923">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kondamudi NP, Dulebohn SC |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28722923 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28722998">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kondamudi NP, Wilt AS |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28722998 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28722938">{{cite journal |vauthors=Memon J, Manganaro SN |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28722938 |doi= |url=}}</ref> <br>
❑ [[CNS depression]]  <br>
❑ [[Birth asphyxia]]  <br>
❑ Severe head trauma  <br>
❑ [[Apnea of prematurity]]  <br>
❑ [[Obstructive sleep apnea]]   <br>
❑ Infections (eg, [[meningitis]], [[encephalitis]])  <br>
❑ [[Intraventricular hemorrhage]] <br>
❑ [[Seizure|Seizures]]  <br>
❑ Cyanotic breath holding spells <ref name="pmid28555179">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bergeron M, Cohen AP, Cotton RT |title=The Management of Cyanotic Spells in Children with Oesophageal Atresia |journal=Front Pediatr |volume=5 |issue= |pages=106 |date= 2017 |pmid=28555179 |pmc=5430373 |doi=10.3389/fped.2017.00106 |url=}}</ref> <br>
❑ [[Coma]]  <br>
'''Neuromuscular disorders:'''  <br>
❑ [[Myasthenia gravis]]  <br>
❑ Injury to the phrenic nerve  <br>
❑ Type 1 spinal muscular dystrophy (Wernig-Hoffman disease)<br>'''Intrinsic lung diseases''':<ref name="pmid8575588">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maitre B, Similowski T, Derenne JP |title=Physical examination of the adult patient with respiratory diseases: inspection and palpation |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=1584–93 |date=September 1995 |pmid=8575588 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26760414">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hermansen CL, Mahajan A |title=Newborn Respiratory Distress |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=92 |issue=11 |pages=994–1002 |date=December 2015 |pmid=26760414 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21471096">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bishop NB, Stankiewicz P, Steinhorn RH |title=Alveolar capillary dysplasia |journal=Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. |volume=184 |issue=2 |pages=172–9 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21471096 |pmc=3172887 |doi=10.1164/rccm.201010-1697CI |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28722988">{{cite journal |vauthors=Justice NA, Le JK |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=28722988 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25274969">{{cite journal |vauthors=Reuter S, Moser C, Baack M |title=Respiratory distress in the newborn |journal=Pediatr Rev |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=417–28; quiz 429 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25274969 |pmc=4533247 |doi=10.1542/pir.35-10-417 |url=}}</ref> <br>
❑ [[Asthma]] <br>
❑ [[COPD]] <br>
❑ [[Pneumonia]] <br>
❑ [[Bronchiolitis]] <br>
❑ [[Acute respiratory distress syndrome|Respiratory distress syndrome]] (Hyaline membrane disease) <br>
❑ [[Empyema]] <br>
❑ [[Pleural effusion]] <br>
❑ [[Cystic fibrosis]] <br>
❑ [[Atelectasis]] <br>
❑ [[Bronchopulmonary dysplasia]] <br>
❑ [[Alveolar capillary dysplasia]]|G03=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 12em; padding:1em;">'''Vascular causes''': <br>
❑ [[Cardiac tamponade]] <br>
❑ '''Cyanotic congenital heart diseases (Right to left shunts):''' <ref name="pmid16199347">{{cite journal |vauthors=Woods WA, McCulloch MA |title=Cardiovascular emergencies in the pediatric patient |journal=Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=1233–49 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16199347 |doi=10.1016/j.emc.2005.07.003 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2407997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Driscoll DJ |title=Evaluation of the cyanotic newborn |journal=Pediatr. Clin. North Am. |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2407997 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19144126">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bailliard F, Anderson RH |title=Tetralogy of Fallot |journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis |volume=4 |issue= |pages=2 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19144126 |pmc=2651859 |doi=10.1186/1750-1172-4-2 |url=}}</ref><br>
:❑ '''Decreased pulmonary flow:'''<br>
::❑ [[Tetralogy of Fallot|Tetralogy of fallout]] <ref name="pmid19144126">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bailliard F, Anderson RH |title=Tetralogy of Fallot |journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis |volume=4 |issue= |pages=2 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19144126 |pmc=2651859 |doi=10.1186/1750-1172-4-2 |url=}}</ref><br>
::❑ Tricuspid valve anomalies:<br>
:::❑ [[Tricuspid atresia]]<br>
:::❑ [[Tricuspid stenosis]]<br>
:::❑ [[Ebstein's anomaly of the tricuspid valve|Ebstein's anomaly]]<br>
::❑ [[Pulmonary valve stenosis|Pulmonary stenosis]] (critical valvular)<br>
::❑ [[Pulmonary atresia]] with intact ventricular septum<br>
:❑ '''Increased pulmonary flow:'''<br>
::❑ [[TGA]] (Transposition of great arteries, most common dextro type)<br>
::❑ [[Truncus arteriosus]]<br>
::❑ [[Total anomalous pulmonary venous connection|TAPVC]] (Total anamalous pulmonary venous connection)<br>
:❑ '''Heart failure:'''  Condition that present with cyanosis and  severe heart failure include:<br>
::❑ Left sided obstructive lesion ([[Hypoplastic left heart syndrome|HLHS]])<br>
::❑ [[Aortic coarctation|Coarctation of aorta]]<br>
::❑ Critical valvular [[aortic stenosis]]<br>
❑ [[Eisenmenger's syndrome|Eisenmenger syndrome]]<br>
❑ [[Congestive heart failure]]<br>
❑ [[Atrial septal defect]]<br>
❑ [[Pulmonary hypertension]]<br>
❑ [[Pulmonary edema]]<br>
❑ [[Pulmonary hemorrhage]]<br>
❑ [[Pulmonary embolism]]<br>
❑ Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations<br>
❑ Multiple small intrapulmonary shunts<br>
❑ [[Shock]]<br>
❑ [[Sepsis]]<br>
❑ [[Amniotic fluid embolism]] <ref name="pmid27275041">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kaur K, Bhardwaj M, Kumar P, Singhal S, Singh T, Hooda S |title=Amniotic fluid embolism |journal=J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=153–9 |date= 2016 |pmid=27275041 |pmc=4874066 |doi=10.4103/0970-9185.173356 |url=}}</ref>|G04=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 12em; padding:1em;">'''Conditions associated with decreased concentration of inspired oxygen (FiO2):''' <ref name="pmid21051109">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dueñas-Laita A, Burillo Putze G, Alonso JR, Bajo A, Climent B, Corral E, Felices F, Ferrer A, Hernández Frutos MP, Nogué S, Puiguriguer J |title=[Basis for the clinical management of fire smoke poisoning "Docohumo Madrid 2010"] |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Med Intensiva |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=609–19 |date=December 2010 |pmid=21051109 |doi=10.1016/j.medin.2010.07.007 |url=}}</ref> <br>
❑ [[Smoke inhalation]] most commonly from house fires  <br>
❑ [[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]  <br>
❑ Hydrogen [[cyanide poisoning]]  <br>
❑ Intentional or unintensional exposure to asphyxiating gases (eg, [[Propane]], [[methane]], [[Butane|butane,]] [[Hydrogen sulfide|hydrogen sulphide]])  <br>
'''Impairment of chest wall or lung expansion:'''  <br>
❑ External compression  <br>
❑ [[Pneumothorax]] <ref name="pmid29083723">{{cite journal |vauthors=Costumbrado J, Ghassemzadeh S |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |date= |pmid=29083723 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  <br>
❑ [[Hemothorax]]  <br>
❑ [[Flail chest]]|D02=<div style="float: left; text-align: left; width: 12em; padding:1em;"> '''Causes:''' <ref name="pmid27899893">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fardoun MM, Nassif J, Issa K, Baydoun E, Eid AH |title=Raynaud's Phenomenon: A Brief Review of the Underlying Mechanisms |journal=Front Pharmacol |volume=7 |issue= |pages=438 |date= 2016 |pmid=27899893 |pmc=5110514 |doi=10.3389/fphar.2016.00438 |url= |author=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24249890">{{cite journal |vauthors=Das S, Maiti A |title=Acrocyanosis: an overview |journal=Indian J Dermatol |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=417–20 |date=November 2013 |pmid=24249890 |pmc=3827510 |doi=10.4103/0019-5154.119946 |url= |author=}}</ref> <br>
❑ [[Hypothermia|Cold exposure]]  <br>
❑ [[Acrocyanosis]]  <br>
❑ [[Erythrocyanosis]]  <br>
❑ [[Raynaud's phenomenon]]  <br>
❑ [[Raynaud's disease]]  <br>
❑ Arterial obstruction:  <br>
:❑ [[Peripheral arterial disease|Peripheral vascular disease]]  <br>
:❑ [[Buergers disease]]  <br>
❑ Venous obstruction:  <br>
:❑ [[Thromboembolism]]  <br>
:❑ [[Deep vein thrombosis]]  <br>
:❑ [[Superior vena cava syndrome]]  <br>
❑ Decreased cardiac output:  <br>
:❑ [[Congestive heart failure|Left sided heart failure]]  <br>
:❑ [[Shock]]  <br>
:❑ [[Hypovolemia]]  <br>
❑ Redistribution of blood flow from extremities <br> </div>}}
{{familytree | | | | | | D01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |D01=Pseudocyanosis}}
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | E03 |-|+|-| E01 | | | | | | | | | | |E01=Extensive tattoos|E03=Metals}}
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | F02 |-|+|-| F01 | | | | | | | | | | | |F02=Drugs|F01=Pigmentary lesions}}
{{familytree | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | G01 | | | | | | | | | | | | |B02=|G01=Consumption of dyed food}}
{{familytree/end}}
==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of <nowiki>[[disease name]]</nowiki> according the the [...] guidelines.
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of <nowiki>[[disease name]]</nowiki> according the the [...] guidelines.

Revision as of 02:10, 5 August 2020


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:

Overview

This section provides a short and straight to the point overview of the disease or symptom. The first sentence of the overview must contain the name of the disease.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions that may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.

Common Causes

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cyanosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Central cyanosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Peripheral cyanosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Hematologic abnormalities: [1]

❑ Methemoglobinemia (congenital or acquired)
❑ Sulfhemoglobinemia (acquired)
❑ Hemoglobin mutations with low oxygen affinity:

❑ Hb Kansas
❑ Hb Beth israel
❑ Hb Saint Mande
❑ Hb Bruxells

❑ Polycythemia vera
❑ Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Metabolic disorders:
❑ Severe hypoglycemia
❑ Inborn errors of metabolism
Miscellaneous:
❑ Drugs and chemicals: [2][3]

❑ Beta blockers
❑ Nitrite or nitrate-containing compounds (eg, nitroglycerin)
❑ Dapsone
❑ Sulfonamides
❑ Benzocaine
❑ Chloroquine
❑ Heroin

❑ Venomous snakebites [4] ❑ Brief resolved unexplained events (BRUE) [5]
❑ High altitude [6]
❑ Congenital diaphragmatic hernia
❑ Cirrhosis of liver
❑ Drowning
❑ Chocking
❑ Hanging

❑ Hypothermia
 
 
 
 
 
Hypoventilation::
Upper airway obstruction: [7][8]

❑ Foreign body aspiration
❑ Pertussis / Croup
❑ Epiglottitis
❑ Bacterial tracheitis
❑ Traumatic disruption (thermal injury, fractures)
❑ Acute chest syndrome [9] ❑ Congenital airway abnormalities:

❑ Choanal atresia
❑ Laryngotracheomalacia
❑ Macroglossia
❑ Micrognathia or retrognathia (eg, Pierre-Robin syndrome)

Neurologic abnormalities: [10][11][12]
❑ CNS depression
❑ Birth asphyxia
❑ Severe head trauma
❑ Apnea of prematurity
❑ Obstructive sleep apnea
❑ Infections (eg, meningitis, encephalitis)
❑ Intraventricular hemorrhage
❑ Seizures
❑ Cyanotic breath holding spells [13]
❑ Coma
Neuromuscular disorders:
❑ Myasthenia gravis
❑ Injury to the phrenic nerve
❑ Type 1 spinal muscular dystrophy (Wernig-Hoffman disease)
Intrinsic lung diseases:[14][15][16][17][18]
❑ Asthma
❑ COPD
❑ Pneumonia
❑ Bronchiolitis
❑ Respiratory distress syndrome (Hyaline membrane disease)
❑ Empyema
❑ Pleural effusion
❑ Cystic fibrosis
❑ Atelectasis
❑ Bronchopulmonary dysplasia

❑ Alveolar capillary dysplasia
 
 
 
 
 
Vascular causes:

❑ Cardiac tamponade
❑ Cyanotic congenital heart diseases (Right to left shunts): [19][20][21]

❑ Decreased pulmonary flow:
❑ Tetralogy of fallout [21]
❑ Tricuspid valve anomalies:
❑ Tricuspid atresia
❑ Tricuspid stenosis
❑ Ebstein's anomaly
❑ Pulmonary stenosis (critical valvular)
❑ Pulmonary atresia with intact ventricular septum
❑ Increased pulmonary flow:
❑ TGA (Transposition of great arteries, most common dextro type)
❑ Truncus arteriosus
❑ TAPVC (Total anamalous pulmonary venous connection)
❑ Heart failure: Condition that present with cyanosis and severe heart failure include:
❑ Left sided obstructive lesion (HLHS)
❑ Coarctation of aorta
❑ Critical valvular aortic stenosis

❑ Eisenmenger syndrome
❑ Congestive heart failure
❑ Atrial septal defect
❑ Pulmonary hypertension
❑ Pulmonary edema
❑ Pulmonary hemorrhage
❑ Pulmonary embolism
❑ Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations
❑ Multiple small intrapulmonary shunts
❑ Shock
❑ Sepsis

❑ Amniotic fluid embolism [22]
 
 
 
 
 
Conditions associated with decreased concentration of inspired oxygen (FiO2): [23]

❑ Smoke inhalation most commonly from house fires
❑ Carbon monoxide poisoning
❑ Hydrogen cyanide poisoning
❑ Intentional or unintensional exposure to asphyxiating gases (eg, Propane, methane, butane, hydrogen sulphide)
Impairment of chest wall or lung expansion:
❑ External compression
❑ Pneumothorax [24]
❑ Hemothorax

❑ Flail chest
 
 
 
Causes: [25][26]

❑ Cold exposure
❑ Acrocyanosis
❑ Erythrocyanosis
❑ Raynaud's phenomenon
❑ Raynaud's disease
❑ Arterial obstruction:

❑ Peripheral vascular disease
❑ Buergers disease

❑ Venous obstruction:

❑ Thromboembolism
❑ Deep vein thrombosis
❑ Superior vena cava syndrome

❑ Decreased cardiac output:

❑ Left sided heart failure
❑ Shock
❑ Hypovolemia
❑ Redistribution of blood flow from extremities
 
 
 
 
 
Pseudocyanosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Metals
 
 
 
 
Extensive tattoos
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Drugs
 
 
 
 
Pigmentary lesions
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Consumption of dyed food
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Diagnosis

Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of [[disease name]] according the the [...] guidelines.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Treatment

Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the treatment of [[disease name]] according the the [...] guidelines.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Do's

  • The content in this section is in bullet points.

Don'ts

  • The content in this section is in bullet points.

References

  1. ↑ Martínez de Zabarte Fernández JM, García Íñiguez JP, Domínguez Cajal M (February 2018). "Metahemoglobinemia in infants over one year". Med Clin (Barc). doi:10.1016/j.medcli.2017.12.009. PMID 29439874.
  2. ↑ Günal E, Akkuş Y, Çığşar G, Çiftçi H, Kahramanca Ş, Özdemir M (October 2017). "Methemoglobinemia incidence after the application of lidocaine for small surgical procedures". Agri. 29 (4): 173–176. PMID 29171648.
  3. ↑ Hilbert P, Zur Nieden K (September 2004). "[Suicidal fatal beta-blocker intoxication]". Anaesthesist (in German). 53 (9): 826–9. doi:10.1007/s00101-004-0721-1. PMID 15249969.
  4. ↑ Hifumi T, Sakai A, Kondo Y, Yamamoto A, Morine N, Ato M, Shibayama K, Umezawa K, Kiriu N, Kato H, Koido Y, Inoue J, Kawakita K, Kuroda Y (2015). "Venomous snake bites: clinical diagnosis and treatment". J Intensive Care. 3 (1): 16. doi:10.1186/s40560-015-0081-8. PMC 4393627. PMID 25866646.
  5. ↑ Kondamudi NP, Virji M. PMID 28722926. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  6. ↑ Jensen JD, Vincent AL. PMID 28613569. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  7. ↑ Gossman WG, Burns B. PMID 29261942. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  8. ↑ Zoorob RJ, Campbell JS (November 2003). "Acute dyspnea in the office". Am Fam Physician. 68 (9): 1803–10. PMID 14620600.
  9. ↑ Jain S, Bakshi N, Krishnamurti L (December 2017). "Acute Chest Syndrome in Children with Sickle Cell Disease". Pediatr Allergy Immunol Pulmonol. 30 (4): 191–201. doi:10.1089/ped.2017.0814. PMC 5733742. PMID 29279787.
  10. ↑ Kondamudi NP, Dulebohn SC. PMID 28722923. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  11. ↑ Kondamudi NP, Wilt AS. PMID 28722998. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  12. ↑ Memon J, Manganaro SN. PMID 28722938. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. ↑ Bergeron M, Cohen AP, Cotton RT (2017). "The Management of Cyanotic Spells in Children with Oesophageal Atresia". Front Pediatr. 5: 106. doi:10.3389/fped.2017.00106. PMC 5430373. PMID 28555179.
  14. ↑ Maitre B, Similowski T, Derenne JP (September 1995). "Physical examination of the adult patient with respiratory diseases: inspection and palpation". Eur. Respir. J. 8 (9): 1584–93. PMID 8575588.
  15. ↑ Hermansen CL, Mahajan A (December 2015). "Newborn Respiratory Distress". Am Fam Physician. 92 (11): 994–1002. PMID 26760414.
  16. ↑ Bishop NB, Stankiewicz P, Steinhorn RH (July 2011). "Alveolar capillary dysplasia". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 184 (2): 172–9. doi:10.1164/rccm.201010-1697CI. PMC 3172887. PMID 21471096.
  17. ↑ Justice NA, Le JK. PMID 28722988. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. ↑ Reuter S, Moser C, Baack M (October 2014). "Respiratory distress in the newborn". Pediatr Rev. 35 (10): 417–28, quiz 429. doi:10.1542/pir.35-10-417. PMC 4533247. PMID 25274969.
  19. ↑ Woods WA, McCulloch MA (November 2005). "Cardiovascular emergencies in the pediatric patient". Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. 23 (4): 1233–49. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2005.07.003. PMID 16199347.
  20. ↑ Driscoll DJ (February 1990). "Evaluation of the cyanotic newborn". Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 37 (1): 1–23. PMID 2407997.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Bailliard F, Anderson RH (January 2009). "Tetralogy of Fallot". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 4: 2. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-4-2. PMC 2651859. PMID 19144126.
  22. ↑ Kaur K, Bhardwaj M, Kumar P, Singhal S, Singh T, Hooda S (2016). "Amniotic fluid embolism". J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 32 (2): 153–9. doi:10.4103/0970-9185.173356. PMC 4874066. PMID 27275041.
  23. ↑ Dueñas-Laita A, Burillo Putze G, Alonso JR, Bajo A, Climent B, Corral E, Felices F, Ferrer A, Hernández Frutos MP, Nogué S, Puiguriguer J (December 2010). "[Basis for the clinical management of fire smoke poisoning "Docohumo Madrid 2010"]". Med Intensiva (in Spanish; Castilian). 34 (9): 609–19. doi:10.1016/j.medin.2010.07.007. PMID 21051109.
  24. ↑ Costumbrado J, Ghassemzadeh S. PMID 29083723. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  25. ↑ Fardoun MM, Nassif J, Issa K, Baydoun E, Eid AH (2016). "Raynaud's Phenomenon: A Brief Review of the Underlying Mechanisms". Front Pharmacol. 7: 438. doi:10.3389/fphar.2016.00438. PMC 5110514. PMID 27899893.
  26. ↑ Das S, Maiti A (November 2013). "Acrocyanosis: an overview". Indian J Dermatol. 58 (6): 417–20. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.119946. PMC 3827510. PMID 24249890.


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