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| == Cardiac catheterization == | | == Cardiac catheterization == |
| * [[Cardiac catheter]] interventions can be palliative by improving cyanosis or be corrective by relieving obstruction to flow.
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| * [[Balloon valvuloplasty]] can be effective in patients with critical [[pulmonary stenosis]] or [[aortic stenosis]].
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| * Selected patients with [[pulmonary atresia]] are also candidates for [[balloon valvuloplasty]] if the obstruction is membranous.
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| == Pulmonary atresia ==
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| *Surgery is the mainstay of therapy for [disease name].
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| *[Surgical procedure] in conjunction with [chemotherapy/radiation] is the most common approach to the treatment of [disease name].
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| *[Surgical procedure] can only be performed for patients with [disease stage] [disease name].
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| * [[Cardiac catheterization]] is done to evaluate the defect or defects of the heart; this procedure is much more invasive.
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| * The patient will need to have a series of surgeries to improve the blood flow permanently.
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| * The type of surgery recommended depends on the size of the [[right ventricle]] and the [[pulmonary artery]]. If they are normal in size and the [[right ventricle]] is able to pump blood, [[open heart surgery]] can be performed to make [[blood flow]] through the heart in a normal pattern.
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| * If the [[right ventricle]] is small and unable to act as a pump, doctors may perform another type of operation called the [[Fontan procedure]]. In this two-stage procedure, the [[right atrium]] is disconnected from the [[pulmonary circulation]].
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| * The systemic [[venous return]] goes directly to the lungs, by-passing the heart. The first surgery will likely be performed shortly after birth. A [[shunt]] can be created between the aorta and the [[pulmonary artery]] to help increase blood flow to the [[lungs]]. As the child grows, so does the heart and the [[shunt]] may need revised in order to meet the body's requirements.
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| * A cardiac catheterization procedure can be used as a diagnostic procedure, as well as initial treatment procedure as balloon atrial septostomy to improve mixing oxygenated blood and unoxygenated blood between the right and [[Left atrium|left atria]].
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| * '''Atrial Septostomy'''
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| * Aspecial catheter with a balloon in the tip is used to create an opening in the [[atrial septum]]. The catheter is guided through the [[foramen ovale]] to the [[left atrium]] (LA).
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| * Once the ballon is in the LA is inflated and then pulled back opening a bigger hole between the right atrium and the LA to mix blood.
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| * If the hospital does not have a catheterization lab with skill physician to perform the ballon atrial septostomy, an intravenous medication called prostaglandin is administered to keep the [[Ductus arteriosus|ductus arteriousus]] from closing.
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| == Transposition of great arteries ==
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| '''Palliative interventions'''
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| *Cardiac catheterization
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| **Rashkind balloon atrial septostomy: A '''balloon atrial septostomy''' is performed with a balloon catheter, which is inserted into a foramen ovale, PFO, or ASD and inflated to enlarge the opening in the [[Interatrial septum|atrial septum;]] this creates a shunt which allows a larger amount of red blood to enter the systemic circulation.
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| **[[Balloon angioplasty]]: [[Angioplasty]] also requires a balloon catheter, which is used to stretch open a stenotic vessel; this relieves restricted blood flow, which could otherwise lead to [[Congestive heart failure|CHF]].
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| **Endovascular stenting: An '''endovascular stent''' is sometimes placed in a stenotic vessel immediately following a balloon angioplasty to maintain the widened passage.
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| **[[Angiography]]: Angiography involves using the catheter to release a contrast medium into the chambers and vessels of the heart; this process facilitates examining the flow of blood through the chambers during an [[Echocardiography|echocardiogram]], or shows the vessels clearly on a [[Chest X-ray|chest x-ray]], [[MRI]], or [[CT scan]] - this is of particular importance, as the coronary arteries must be carefully examined and "mapped out" prior to the corrective surgery. It is commonplace for any of these [[Palliation|palliations]] to be performed on a [[TGA]] patient.
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| '''Moderate'''
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| *Left [[Thoracotomy|anterior thoracotomy]]
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| *Left lateral thoracotomy
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| *Right lateral thoracotomy
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| *Each of these procedures are performed through an incision between the ribs and visualized by echocardiogram; these are far less common than heart cath procedures.
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| *Pulmonary artery banding is used in a small number of cases of d-TGA, usually when the corrective surgery needs to be delayed, to create an artificial stenosis in order to control pulmonary blood pressure; PAB involves placing a band around the pulmonary trunk, this band can then be quickly and easily adjusted when necessary.
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| *An atrial septectomy is the surgical removal of the atrial septum; this is performed when a foramen ovale, PFO, or ASD are not present and additional shunting is required to raise the oxygen saturation of the blood.
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| '''Major'''
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| *Median sternotomy
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| *PAB (when intracardiac procedures also required)
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| *Concomitant atrial septectomy
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| == Total anomalus pulmonary venous return ==
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| Surgery should be performed as soon as possible in the patients of total anomalous pulmonary venous connection. The surgical procedure varies depending upon the anatomy of the TAPVC lesion.
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| *Supracardiac and infracardiac TAPVC: Connection is created between the [[Pulmonary vein|pulmonary veins]] and the [[left atrium]]. The vertical vein is tied up so that the abnormal blood flow could be prevented.
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| *Pulmonary veins directly connected to the superiorvenacava: An intracardiac baffle is created that helps in transfer of blood from the [[right atrium]], through atrial septum into the left atrium.
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| *Intracardiac (pulmonary vein connected to the coronary sinus): Coronary sinus is incised and connected to left atrium.
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| *Intracardiac (pulmonary vein opening directly into the right atrium): A interatrial connection is made and the blood is redirected from right atrium to left atrium.
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| == Tricuspid atresia ==
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| *[[Surgery]] is the mainstay of therapy for [[tricuspid atresia]].
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| :* In the first 8 weeks of life if there are severe [[ Cyanosis]] and [[pulmonary obstruction]] and normal positioning [[ aorta]] and [[ pulmonary artery]], making a [[shunt]] between systemic [[subclavian artery]] to the [[ pulmonary artery ]] is necessary which is called [[Blalock -Taussig]] [[(BT shunt)]].<ref name="pmid26260095">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aykanat A, Yavuz T, Özalkaya E, Topçuoğlu S, Ovalı F, Karatekin G |title=Long-Term Prostaglandin E1 Infusion for Newborns with Critical Congenital Heart Disease |journal=Pediatr Cardiol |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=131–4 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26260095 |doi=10.1007/s00246-015-1251-0 |url=}}</ref>
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| :* If the [[pulmonary artery]] comes from the [[left ventricle]] and is overflowed, [[pulmonary artery]] banding is useful for lowering the [[pulmonary blood flow]].<ref name="pmid30811802">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boucek DM, Qureshi AM, Goldstein BH, Petit CJ, Glatz AC |title=Blalock-Taussig shunt versus patent ductus arteriosus stent as first palliation for ductal-dependent pulmonary circulation lesions: A review of the literature |journal=Congenit Heart Dis |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=105–109 |date=January 2019 |pmid=30811802 |doi=10.1111/chd.12707 |url=}}</ref>
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| :* In older children, [[bi-direction Glenn shunt]] which is the connection between [[superior vena cava]] to the [[ pulmonary artery]] is planned for transferring the blood to the pulmonary system.
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| :*[[Fontan]] procedure is a conduit between the [[ inferior vena cava]] and the [[ pulmonary artery]] whether transfers the systemic venous blood to [[pulmonary circulation at the age of 2-3 years old.<ref name="pmid8238751">{{cite journal |vauthors=Norwood WI, Jacobs ML |title=Fontan's procedure in two stages |journal=Am. J. Surg. |volume=166 |issue=5 |pages=548–51 |date=November 1993 |pmid=8238751 |doi=10.1016/s0002-9610(05)81151-1 |url=}}</ref>
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| == Tetralogy of fallot ==
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| == Overview ==
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| Symptomatic [[TOF]] patients may require repair at any age. The elective repair in asymptomatic infants is recommended during the first 6 months. For unoperated adults surgical repair is advocated.
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| === surgery ===
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| :* Repaired surgery may include the following stages:
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| * Closing the [[ventricular septum defect]] ([[VSD]]) with a dacron patch
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| * Resection of infundibular muscle (where the [[pulmonary artery]] arise) and insertion a transannular patch
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| * Insertion of a conduit between [[right ventricle]] and [[pulmonary artery]] for bypassing the [[right ventricular]] outflow obstruction
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| *Closure of [[PFO]] or secundum [[ASD]],[[VSD]],[[PDA]], aortopulmonary collaterals
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| :*Reoperation is recommended in 10-15% of patients after repaired surgery over 20 years follow-up.
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| * In persistent [[right ventricular]] outflow obstruction, resection of residual infundibular stenosis or placement of transannular patch with and without [[pulmonary arterioplasty]] is recommended.
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| * In severe [[pulmonary regurgitation]], [[pulmonary valve]] replacement([[homograft]], [[xenograft]]) is recommended.
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| * In moderate to severe [[tricuspid regurgitation]], [[tricuspid valve]] annuloplasty is recommended.
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| * Percutaneous [[pulmonary valve]] replacement can be done in an expert center.
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| * Indications of intervention after surgery include:<ref name="pmid22921969">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee C, Kim YM, Lee CH, Kwak JG, Park CS, Song JY, Shim WS, Choi EY, Lee SY, Baek JS |title=Outcomes of pulmonary valve replacement in 170 patients with chronic pulmonary regurgitation after relief of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction: implications for optimal timing of pulmonary valve replacement |journal=J Am Coll Cardiol |volume=60 |issue=11 |pages=1005–14 |date=September 2012 |pmid=22921969 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2012.03.077 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Oosterhofvan Straten2007">{{cite journal|last1=Oosterhof|first1=Thomas|last2=van Straten|first2=Alexander|last3=Vliegen|first3=Hubert W.|last4=Meijboom|first4=Folkert J.|last5=van Dijk|first5=Arie P.J.|last6=Spijkerboer|first6=Anje M.|last7=Bouma|first7=Berto J.|last8=Zwinderman|first8=Aeilko H.|last9=Hazekamp|first9=Mark G.|last10=de Roos|first10=Albert|last11=Mulder|first11=Barbara J.M.|title=Preoperative Thresholds for Pulmonary Valve Replacement in Patients With Corrected Tetralogy of Fallot Using Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance|journal=Circulation|volume=116|issue=5|year=2007|pages=545–551|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.659664}}</ref>
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| :* Residual [[VSD]] with the shunt greater than 1.5/1
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| :* Residual [[pulmonary stenosis]] with [[right ventricular systolic pressure]] ≥ 2/3 systemic pressure
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| :* Severe [[pulmonary regurgitation]] with [[right ventricle]] dilation and dysfunction
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| :* [[Exercise intolerance]]
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| :* Sustained [[arrhythmia]]<ref name="pmid20713900">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khairy P, Aboulhosn J, Gurvitz MZ, Opotowsky AR, Mongeon FP, Kay J, Valente AM, Earing MG, Lui G, Gersony DR, Cook S, Ting JG, Nickolaus MJ, Webb G, Landzberg MJ, Broberg CS |title=Arrhythmia burden in adults with surgically repaired tetralogy of Fallot: a multi-institutional study |journal=Circulation |volume=122 |issue=9 |pages=868–75 |date=August 2010 |pmid=20713900 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.928481 |url=}}</ref>
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| :* [[Left ventricular]] dysfunction
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| :* [[QRS]] duration > 180 milliseconds
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| * Surgery also indicates in [[aortic root]] dilation ≥ 55 mm , severe symptomatic [[aortic regurgitation]] with progressive [[left ventricle]] dilation.<ref name="YetmanGraham2009">{{cite journal|last1=Yetman|first1=Anji T.|last2=Graham|first2=Thomas|title=The Dilated Aorta in Patients With Congenital Cardiac Defects|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=53|issue=6|year=2009|pages=461–467|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2008.10.035}}</ref>
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| == Coarcitation of aorta ==
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| ===Indications for Surgery===
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| *There is a lack of consensus for the indications and the time for surgery. Some groups of surgeon consider [[balloon angioplasty]] and stenting as the initial approach and reserving surgery for more complicated conditions or treatment failures. Whereas, others consider surgical repair as the first line of therapy.
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| *Surgery is the first choice in aortic coarctations involving:
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| **Long length of aorta
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| **Severe coarctations causing almost complete or complete obliteration of the aortic lumen.
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| **Associated with other cardiac defects for e.g. large [[patent ductus arteriosus]], [[ventricular septal defect]].
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| === Surgical Techniques===
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| *The choice of technique depends on the patient's age at presentation, size, associated abnormalities, and anatomy of the coarctation.
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| *Surgical approach - [[median sternotomy]] is preferred over left lateral thoracotomy, in complex arch repairs.
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| *Subclavian flap aortoplasty is found to be the most commonly performed followed by resection in end-to-end anastomosis, patch aortoplasty, and bypass graft when the surgery is done during infancy. Whereas, in children and adolescent undergoing coarctation repair end-to-end anastomosis is commonest followed patch aortoplasty and subclavian flap aortoplasty.
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| *Patch aortoplasty are less frequently used these days because of concerns regarding the development of aortic aneurysm at the site of surgery.
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| *Available Techniques:
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| **Resection and end-to-end anastomosis
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| **Patch aortoplasty
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| **Left subclavian flap aortoplasty
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| **Tubular bypass grafts
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| **Combination techniques
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| == Atrial septal defect ==
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| *Surgical closure is the most common method of treatment method for [[atrial septal defect]] and has been the gold standard for many years. Many surgeons prefer more [[Minimally invasive surgery|minimally invasive techniques]] over the conventional [[sternotomy]] to avoid potentials for additional complications. Special consideration must be taken into account for the age of the patient and the size of the defect involved. Surgical closure is indicated for patients with [[Atrial septal defect ostium primum|primum]], [[Atrial septal defect sinus venosus|sinus venosus]] and [[Atrial septal defect coronary sinus|coronary sinus]] type of [[Atrial septal defect|atrial septal defects]]. However, ostium secundum atrial septal defects are commonly treated by percutaneous closure. With uncomplicated [[atrial septal defect]], (without [[pulmonary hypertension]] and other comorbidities) the post-surgical mortality is as low as 1%. Minimally invasive repair of [[atrial septal defect]] has been shown to be as successful as the conventional [[sternotomy]]. Although they have not been associated with reduced morbidity and mortality rates, they have been proven to have the advantage of being less invasive, less post-surgical complications, decreased hospital stay, and more cosmetic benefits.
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| == Pulmonary hypertension ==
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| *The choice of treatment for pulmonary hypertension requires the assessment of the clinical severity of the disease and the identification of any underlying cause.
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| *Patients who have PH secondary to a medical condition such as [[left heart failure]], [[lung]] diseases, or [[Thromboembolism|thromboembolic disease]] should receive treatment for the underlying cause.
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| *Patients who have pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) must undergo vasoreactivity testing in order to assist in the selection of the optimal therapy which includes [[Calcium channel blocker|calcium channel blockers]], [[endothelin receptor antagonist]], [[Phosphodiesterase inhibitor|phosphodiesterase inhibitors]], or [[Prostanoid|prostanoids]].
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| *Surgical intervention such as [[atrial septostomy]] or [[lung transplantation]] should be considered among patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension who fail to improve on optimal therapy or when medical therapy is unavailable.
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| *Failure of clinical improvement among PAH patients with [[Pulmonary hypertension classification#WHO Functional Classification|WHO functional class II or III]] is defined as either:
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| **A stable and unsatisfactory clinical status, or
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| **An unstable and deteriorating Failure of clinical improvement among PAH patients with [[Pulmonary hypertension classification#WHO Functional Classification|WHO functional class IV]] is defined as either:
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| **Absence of quick improvement to a WHO functional class III or less, or
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| **A stable and unsatisfactory clinical status
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| ===Atrial Septostomy===
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| *[[Atrial septostomy]] is a surgical procedure that creates a shunt between the right and left [[atria]].
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| *It relieves pressure on the right side of the heart, but at the cost of lower oxygen levels in blood ([[hypoxia]]). It is best performed in experienced centers.
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| *Graded balloon dilatation of atrial septostomy is the recommended type of [[atrial septostomy]].
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| *Atrial septostomy might be considered among PH patients with [[Pulmonary hypertension classification#WHO Functional Classification|WHO functional class IV]] and [[right heart failure]] refractory to therapy.
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| *[[Atrial septostomy]] should also be considered among PH patients who have [[Eisenmenger's syndrome]], idiopathic PAH, and those awaiting [[lung transplantation]].
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| ===Lung Transplantation===
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| *[[Lung transplantation]] is considered in the treatment of patients with idiopathic PH, PH associated with [[congenital heart disease]], or pulmonary veno-occlusive disease (PVOD) who fail to improve on optimal medical therapy.
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| *Combined lung and heart transplantation might be considered in selected patients.
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| *According to the Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation, the survival rates following [[lung transplantation]] are 61%, 49%, and 25 % at 3, 5, and 10 years respectively.
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| ===Pulmonary Thromboendarterectomy===
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| *[[Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy]] (PTE) is a surgical procedure that is used for the treatment of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension.
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| *It is the surgical removal of an organized [[thrombus]] along with the lining of the [[pulmonary artery]].
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| *PTE is a large and very difficult procedure that is currently performed in a few select centers. Case series show remarkable success in most patients.
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| *Treatment for hypoxic and miscellaneous varieties of PH have not been established. However, studies of several agents are currently enrolling patients. Many physicians will treat these diseases with the same medications as for PAH, until better options become available.
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| ==References== | | ==References== |
| {{Reflist|2}} | | {{Reflist|2}} |