Sudden cardiac death causes: Difference between revisions
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==Diffentiating diagnosis of [[sudden cardiac death]]== | ==Diffentiating diagnosis of [[sudden cardiac death]]== | ||
<ref name="MooreYu2018">{{cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=Benjamin|last2=Yu|first2=Christopher|last3=Kotchetkova|first3=Irina|last4=Cordina|first4=Rachael|last5=Celermajer|first5=David S.|title=Incidence and clinical characteristics of sudden cardiac death in adult congenital heart disease|journal=International Journal of Cardiology|volume=254|year=2018|pages=101–106|issn=01675273|doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.11.117}}</ref><ref name="SchwartzStramba-Badiale2009">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=Peter J.|last2=Stramba-Badiale|first2=Marco|last3=Crotti|first3=Lia|last4=Pedrazzini|first4=Matteo|last5=Besana|first5=Alessandra|last6=Bosi|first6=Giuliano|last7=Gabbarini|first7=Fulvio|last8=Goulene|first8=Karine|last9=Insolia|first9=Roberto|last10=Mannarino|first10=Savina|last11=Mosca|first11=Fabio|last12=Nespoli|first12=Luigi|last13=Rimini|first13=Alessandro|last14=Rosati|first14=Enrico|last15=Salice|first15=Patrizia|last16=Spazzolini|first16=Carla|title=Prevalence of the Congenital Long-QT Syndrome|journal=Circulation|volume=120|issue=18|year=2009|pages=1761–1767|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.863209}}</ref><ref name="Visservan der Heijden2016">{{cite journal|last1=Visser|first1=Marloes|last2=van der Heijden|first2=Jeroen F.|last3=Doevendans|first3=Pieter A.|last4=Loh|first4=Peter|last5=Wilde|first5=Arthur A.|last6=Hassink|first6=Rutger J.|title=Idiopathic Ventricular Fibrillation|journal=Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology|volume=9|issue=5|year=2016|issn=1941-3149|doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.115.003817}}</ref><ref name="YamashinaYagi2011">{{cite journal|last1=Yamashina|first1=Y.|last2=Yagi|first2=T.|last3=Namekawa|first3=A.|last4=Ishida|first4=A.|last5=Sato|first5=H.|last6=Nakagawa|first6=T.|last7=Sakuramoto|first7=M.|last8=Sato|first8=E.|last9=Yambe|first9=T.|title=Prevalence and characteristics of idiopathic right ventricular outflow tract arrhythmias associated with J-waves|journal=Europace|volume=13|issue=12|year=2011|pages=1774–1780|issn=1099-5129|doi=10.1093/europace/eur256}}</ref><ref name="pmid31489394">{{cite journal |vauthors=Henriques de Gouveia RHAM, Corte Real Gonçalves FMA |title=Sudden cardiac death and valvular pathology |journal=Forensic Sci Res |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=280–286 |date=2019 |pmid=31489394 |pmc=6713097 |doi=10.1080/20961790.2019.1595351 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24568819">{{cite journal |vauthors=Israel CW |title=Mechanisms of sudden cardiac death |journal=Indian Heart J |volume=66 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S10–7 |date=2014 |pmid=24568819 |pmc=4237287 |doi=10.1016/j.ihj.2014.01.005 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid31768884">{{cite journal |vauthors=Akhtar M, Elliott PM |title=Risk Stratification for Sudden Cardiac Death in Non-Ischaemic Dilated Cardiomyopathy |journal=Curr Cardiol Rep |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=155 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31768884 |pmc=6877704 |doi=10.1007/s11886-019-1236-3 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21185501">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldenberg I, Horr S, Moss AJ, Lopes CM, Barsheshet A, McNitt S, Zareba W, Andrews ML, Robinson JL, Locati EH, Ackerman MJ, Benhorin J, Kaufman ES, Napolitano C, Platonov PG, Priori SG, Qi M, Schwartz PJ, Shimizu W, Towbin JA, Vincent GM, Wilde AA, Zhang L |title=Risk for life-threatening cardiac events in patients with genotype-confirmed long-QT syndrome and normal-range corrected QT intervals |journal=J Am Coll Cardiol |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=51–9 |date=January 2011 |pmid=21185501 |pmc=3332533 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2010.07.038 |url=}}</ref><ref name="SaraEleid2014">{{cite journal|last1=Sara|first1=Jaskanwal D.|last2=Eleid|first2=Mackram F.|last3=Gulati|first3=Rajiv|last4=Holmes|first4=David R.|title=Sudden Cardiac Death From the Perspective of Coronary Artery Disease|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=89|issue=12|year=2014|pages=1685–1698|issn=00256196|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.08.022}}</ref><ref name="pmid23022709">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Mahony C, Elliott P, McKenna W |title=Sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy |journal=Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=443–51 |date=April 2013 |pmid=23022709 |doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.111.962043 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid30572429">{{cite journal |vauthors=Qiu M, Lv B, Lin W, Ma J, Dong H |title=Sudden cardiac death due to the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: A case report with genetic analysis |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=97 |issue=51 |pages=e13248 |date=December 2018 |pmid=30572429 |pmc=6320009 |doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000013248 |url=}}</ref><ref name="ZhengZheng2018">{{cite journal|last1=Zheng|first1=Jingjing|last2=Zheng|first2=Da|last3=Su|first3=Terry|last4=Cheng|first4=Jianding|title=Sudden Unexplained Nocturnal Death Syndrome: The Hundred Years' Enigma|journal=Journal of the American Heart Association|volume=7|issue=5|year=2018|issn=2047-9980|doi=10.1161/JAHA.117.007837}}</ref><ref name=" | <ref name="MooreYu2018">{{cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=Benjamin|last2=Yu|first2=Christopher|last3=Kotchetkova|first3=Irina|last4=Cordina|first4=Rachael|last5=Celermajer|first5=David S.|title=Incidence and clinical characteristics of sudden cardiac death in adult congenital heart disease|journal=International Journal of Cardiology|volume=254|year=2018|pages=101–106|issn=01675273|doi=10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.11.117}}</ref><ref name="SchwartzStramba-Badiale2009">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=Peter J.|last2=Stramba-Badiale|first2=Marco|last3=Crotti|first3=Lia|last4=Pedrazzini|first4=Matteo|last5=Besana|first5=Alessandra|last6=Bosi|first6=Giuliano|last7=Gabbarini|first7=Fulvio|last8=Goulene|first8=Karine|last9=Insolia|first9=Roberto|last10=Mannarino|first10=Savina|last11=Mosca|first11=Fabio|last12=Nespoli|first12=Luigi|last13=Rimini|first13=Alessandro|last14=Rosati|first14=Enrico|last15=Salice|first15=Patrizia|last16=Spazzolini|first16=Carla|title=Prevalence of the Congenital Long-QT Syndrome|journal=Circulation|volume=120|issue=18|year=2009|pages=1761–1767|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.863209}}</ref><ref name="Visservan der Heijden2016">{{cite journal|last1=Visser|first1=Marloes|last2=van der Heijden|first2=Jeroen F.|last3=Doevendans|first3=Pieter A.|last4=Loh|first4=Peter|last5=Wilde|first5=Arthur A.|last6=Hassink|first6=Rutger J.|title=Idiopathic Ventricular Fibrillation|journal=Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology|volume=9|issue=5|year=2016|issn=1941-3149|doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.115.003817}}</ref><ref name="YamashinaYagi2011">{{cite journal|last1=Yamashina|first1=Y.|last2=Yagi|first2=T.|last3=Namekawa|first3=A.|last4=Ishida|first4=A.|last5=Sato|first5=H.|last6=Nakagawa|first6=T.|last7=Sakuramoto|first7=M.|last8=Sato|first8=E.|last9=Yambe|first9=T.|title=Prevalence and characteristics of idiopathic right ventricular outflow tract arrhythmias associated with J-waves|journal=Europace|volume=13|issue=12|year=2011|pages=1774–1780|issn=1099-5129|doi=10.1093/europace/eur256}}</ref><ref name="pmid31489394">{{cite journal |vauthors=Henriques de Gouveia RHAM, Corte Real Gonçalves FMA |title=Sudden cardiac death and valvular pathology |journal=Forensic Sci Res |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=280–286 |date=2019 |pmid=31489394 |pmc=6713097 |doi=10.1080/20961790.2019.1595351 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24568819">{{cite journal |vauthors=Israel CW |title=Mechanisms of sudden cardiac death |journal=Indian Heart J |volume=66 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S10–7 |date=2014 |pmid=24568819 |pmc=4237287 |doi=10.1016/j.ihj.2014.01.005 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid31768884">{{cite journal |vauthors=Akhtar M, Elliott PM |title=Risk Stratification for Sudden Cardiac Death in Non-Ischaemic Dilated Cardiomyopathy |journal=Curr Cardiol Rep |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=155 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31768884 |pmc=6877704 |doi=10.1007/s11886-019-1236-3 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21185501">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldenberg I, Horr S, Moss AJ, Lopes CM, Barsheshet A, McNitt S, Zareba W, Andrews ML, Robinson JL, Locati EH, Ackerman MJ, Benhorin J, Kaufman ES, Napolitano C, Platonov PG, Priori SG, Qi M, Schwartz PJ, Shimizu W, Towbin JA, Vincent GM, Wilde AA, Zhang L |title=Risk for life-threatening cardiac events in patients with genotype-confirmed long-QT syndrome and normal-range corrected QT intervals |journal=J Am Coll Cardiol |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=51–9 |date=January 2011 |pmid=21185501 |pmc=3332533 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2010.07.038 |url=}}</ref><ref name="SaraEleid2014">{{cite journal|last1=Sara|first1=Jaskanwal D.|last2=Eleid|first2=Mackram F.|last3=Gulati|first3=Rajiv|last4=Holmes|first4=David R.|title=Sudden Cardiac Death From the Perspective of Coronary Artery Disease|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=89|issue=12|year=2014|pages=1685–1698|issn=00256196|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.08.022}}</ref><ref name="pmid23022709">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Mahony C, Elliott P, McKenna W |title=Sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy |journal=Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=443–51 |date=April 2013 |pmid=23022709 |doi=10.1161/CIRCEP.111.962043 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid30572429">{{cite journal |vauthors=Qiu M, Lv B, Lin W, Ma J, Dong H |title=Sudden cardiac death due to the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: A case report with genetic analysis |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=97 |issue=51 |pages=e13248 |date=December 2018 |pmid=30572429 |pmc=6320009 |doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000013248 |url=}}</ref><ref name="ZhengZheng2018">{{cite journal|last1=Zheng|first1=Jingjing|last2=Zheng|first2=Da|last3=Su|first3=Terry|last4=Cheng|first4=Jianding|title=Sudden Unexplained Nocturnal Death Syndrome: The Hundred Years' Enigma|journal=Journal of the American Heart Association|volume=7|issue=5|year=2018|issn=2047-9980|doi=10.1161/JAHA.117.007837}}</ref><ref name="pmid28567077">{{cite journal |vauthors=Viskin S |title=Idiopathic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia: a "Benign Disease" with a Touch of Bad Luck? |journal=Korean Circ J |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=299–306 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28567077 |pmc=5449521 |doi=10.4070/kcj.2016.0303 |url=}}</ref> | ||
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! Incidence | ! Incidence | ||
| 80%|| 10% || 1%|| | | 80%|| 10% || 1%||2%||1% to 5% in native [[valves]], 0.2%–0.9% in [[prosthesis]]||0.04% ||0.05% || 0.1%|| Rare || ||5%||0.001% | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Mechanism | ! Mechanism | ||
Revision as of 14:22, 9 February 2021
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Sudden cardiac death Microchapters |
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Sudden cardiac death causes On the Web |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Sudden cardiac death causes |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sara Zand, M.D.[2]
Overview
Sudden cardiac arrest may be caused by coronary artery abnormality such as coronary atherosclerosis, acute MI, coronary artery embolism, coronary arteritis , hypertrophy of myocardium such as HCM, hypertensive heart disease, primary or secondary pulmonary hypertension , myocardial disease such as ischemic cardiomyopathy, non-ischemic cardiomyopathy, myocarditis ,valvular heart disease such as aortic stenosis, aortic insufficiency, mitral valve prolapse, endocarditis , congenital heart disease such as congenital septal defect with eisenmenger physiology , abnormality in conducting system such as Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome , electrical instability such as (CPVT, LQTS)
Causes
Sudden cardiac arrest may be caused by :
- Coronary artery abnormality such as coronary atherosclerosis, acute MI, coronary artery embolism, coronary arteritis[1][2]
- Hypertrophy of myocardium such as HCM, hypertensive heart disease, primary or secondary pulmonary hypertension
- Myocardial disease such as ischemic cardiomyopathy, non-ischemic cardiomyopathy, myocarditis[3]
- Valvular heart disease such as aortic stenosis,aortic insufficiency, mitral valve prolapse, endocarditis [4]
- Congenital heart disease such as congenital septal defect with Eisenmenger physiology[5]
- Abnormality in conducting system such as Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome
- Electrical instability such as (CPVT, LQTS)
Causes of acquired Long QT syndrome include the following
- Antiarrhythmic agents
- Class IA: quinidine, procainamide, N-acetyl procainamide, disopyramide
- Class III: amiodarone, low risk of torsade de points
- Class IV: bepridil,mibefradil
- Antihistamines
- Terfenadine
- Astemizole
- Antimicrobials
- Erythromycin
- Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
- Clarithromycin
- Cotzimoxazole
- Azithromycin
- Ketoconazole
- Pentamidine
- Chloroquine
- Gastrointestinal
- Cisapride
- Liquid protein diets
- Anorexia nervosa
- Lipid-lowering
- Probucol
- Psychotropic agents
- Tricyclic and tetracycline antidepressants
- Haloperidol
- Phenothiazines
- Risperidone
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
- Other agents
- Organophosphates
- Diuretics (reduced K+, Mg2+)
- Vasopressin (severe bradycardia)
- Chloral hydrate amantadine
- Electrolyte abnormalities
- Hypokalemia
- Hypomagnesemia
- Hypocalcemia
Causes of Sudden Death Including Sudden Cardiac Death by Organ System
Diffentiating diagnosis of sudden cardiac death
[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]
| Differentiating diagnosis of sudden cardiac death | Coronary Artery Disease | Ideopathic dilated cardiomyopathy | Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy | Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy | Valvular Heart Disease | Congenital Heart Disease | Long QT syndrome | WPW syndrome | Ideopathic monomorphic VT | Ideopathic polymorphic VT | Ideopathic VF | Sudden unexpected nocturnal death (Lai-Lai, sleep death, Laos Pukkuri |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Incidence | 80% | 10% | 1% | 2% | 1% to 5% in native valves, 0.2%–0.9% in prosthesis | 0.04% | 0.05% | 0.1% | Rare | 5% | 0.001% | |
| Mechanism | Atherosclerosis in coronary arteries: 3 vessels disease in 40-86% patients with stenosis > 75%, MI < 50%, Qwave MI < 25%, recent coronary thrombosis 15-64% , healed infarct>50% in autopsy or survivors of SCD, Non atherosclerotic changes including coronary emboli, coronary arthritis, coronary dissection in few cases | Myocardial stretch, neuroendocrine factors, electrolyte abnormality, proarrhythmic effect of antiarrhythmic drugs, excessive activation of sympathetic and renin angiotensin system | Arrhythmia, abrupt hemodynamic deterioration, ischemia | Fatty and fibrofatty myocardial infiltration, patchy myocarditis, apoptosis of left ventricle, left ventricular septum (50-67%), right ventricular inflow, outflow tract and apex( triangle of dysplasia) | Arrhythmia, prosthetic valve dysfunction, Coexisting CAD | SCD is late presentation after surgical repair of complex congenital heart disease such as Eisenmenger syndrome,transposition of the great arteries (atrial switch or congenitally corrected), Fontan circulations. | Prolongation of repolarization, early after depolarization | In 10% of patients, SCD is first presentation. development of AF rapid conduction to the ventricle through accessory pathway caused VF | Normal heart structure, Originated from RV outflow tract (more common), or LV outflow tract. SCD is rare | Initiation of arrhythmia with coupled premature complex, aquared or congenital Long QT interval, ischemia , SCD is more common than monomorphic VT, sporadic or familiar | Normal structure of the heart, recurrence of VF, cardiac arrest , syncope in 30% of patients | Unknown |
| Risk factors of SCD | Plaque, fissure, hemorrhage, thrombosis in coronary arteries | Frequent episodes of non sustain VT, syncope | Family history of SCD, recurrent syncope, sustained VT, history of SCA, massive LVH, multiple episodes of non sustained VT | Asymptomatic aotric valve disease is low risk for [[SCD].Risk factors of SCD in MVP: myxomatous degeneration of the valve, coexisting mitral regurgitation, LV dysfunction | Risk factors of SCD in TOF: QRS prolongation, dilated RV | Incidence of cardiac event in LQTS1, LQTS2> LQTS3 Lethality of cardiac event in LQTS3 > LQTS1, LQTS2 | Predictors of VF: AF with shortest interval between ventricle beats less than 250 msec | Cathecolamine release after stressful emotional or physical event | Young, male sex, southeast asian ethnicity | |||
| Arrhythmia | VT, VF (75%), bradycardia, asystole(25%) | Mechanism of VT: bundle branch reentry tachycardia, terminal event: asystole, electromechanical dissociation in advanced LV dysfunction | Ventricular tachycardia, Ventricular fibrillation | ECG in normal sinus rhythm T waves inversion in V1-V3, complete, incomplete RBBB, epsilone wave ( terminal notch on QRS complex), VT is LBBB contour | Atrial arrhythmias (43%), QRS prolongation (mean 132ms) | Torsadepoints, ECG findings: abnormal Twaves contour, Twaves alternance, sinus bradycardia | RV outflow tract VT is LBBB contour, inferior axis, Termination with vagal maneuver such as adenosine. LVOT VT or fasciculated VT is RBBB contour with left axis deviation, originated from left posterior septum, Termination with calcium channel blocker | SCD in the presence of polymorphic VT and normal LV function without torsadepoints, Termination of cathecolaminergic polymorphic VT (CPVT) with betablocker, | Ealy repolarization abnormality in inferior lateral leads, No response to betablocker in the presence of ideopathic VF or short coupled of torsades de points |
References
- ↑ Mehta, Davendra; Curwin, Jay; Gomes, J. Anthony; Fuster, Valentin (1997). "Sudden Death in Coronary Artery Disease". Circulation. 96 (9): 3215–3223. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.96.9.3215. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ Eisenberg MS, Mengert TJ (2001). "Cardiac resuscitation". N. Engl. J. Med. 344 (17): 1304–13. PMID 11320390. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ . doi:10.1080/2F20961790.2019.1595352. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ 4.0 4.1 Basso, Cristina; Perazzolo Marra, Martina; Rizzo, Stefania; De Lazzari, Manuel; Giorgi, Benedetta; Cipriani, Alberto; Frigo, Anna Chiara; Rigato, Ilaria; Migliore, Federico; Pilichou, Kalliopi; Bertaglia, Emanuele; Cacciavillani, Luisa; Bauce, Barbara; Corrado, Domenico; Thiene, Gaetano; Iliceto, Sabino (2015). "Arrhythmic Mitral Valve Prolapse and Sudden Cardiac Death". Circulation. 132 (7): 556–566. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.016291. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ Yap, Sing-Chien; Harris, Louise (2014). "Sudden cardiac death in adults with congenital heart disease". Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy. 7 (12): 1605–1620. doi:10.1586/erc.09.153. ISSN 1477-9072.
- ↑ Moore, Benjamin; Yu, Christopher; Kotchetkova, Irina; Cordina, Rachael; Celermajer, David S. (2018). "Incidence and clinical characteristics of sudden cardiac death in adult congenital heart disease". International Journal of Cardiology. 254: 101–106. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.11.117. ISSN 0167-5273.
- ↑ Schwartz, Peter J.; Stramba-Badiale, Marco; Crotti, Lia; Pedrazzini, Matteo; Besana, Alessandra; Bosi, Giuliano; Gabbarini, Fulvio; Goulene, Karine; Insolia, Roberto; Mannarino, Savina; Mosca, Fabio; Nespoli, Luigi; Rimini, Alessandro; Rosati, Enrico; Salice, Patrizia; Spazzolini, Carla (2009). "Prevalence of the Congenital Long-QT Syndrome". Circulation. 120 (18): 1761–1767. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.863209. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ Visser, Marloes; van der Heijden, Jeroen F.; Doevendans, Pieter A.; Loh, Peter; Wilde, Arthur A.; Hassink, Rutger J. (2016). "Idiopathic Ventricular Fibrillation". Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology. 9 (5). doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.115.003817. ISSN 1941-3149.
- ↑ Yamashina, Y.; Yagi, T.; Namekawa, A.; Ishida, A.; Sato, H.; Nakagawa, T.; Sakuramoto, M.; Sato, E.; Yambe, T. (2011). "Prevalence and characteristics of idiopathic right ventricular outflow tract arrhythmias associated with J-waves". Europace. 13 (12): 1774–1780. doi:10.1093/europace/eur256. ISSN 1099-5129.
- ↑ Henriques de Gouveia R, Corte Real Gonçalves F (2019). "Sudden cardiac death and valvular pathology". Forensic Sci Res. 4 (3): 280–286. doi:10.1080/20961790.2019.1595351. PMC 6713097 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 31489394. Vancouver style error: initials (help) - ↑ Israel CW (2014). "Mechanisms of sudden cardiac death". Indian Heart J. 66 Suppl 1: S10–7. doi:10.1016/j.ihj.2014.01.005. PMC 4237287. PMID 24568819.
- ↑ Akhtar M, Elliott PM (November 2019). "Risk Stratification for Sudden Cardiac Death in Non-Ischaemic Dilated Cardiomyopathy". Curr Cardiol Rep. 21 (12): 155. doi:10.1007/s11886-019-1236-3. PMC 6877704 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 31768884. - ↑ Goldenberg I, Horr S, Moss AJ, Lopes CM, Barsheshet A, McNitt S, Zareba W, Andrews ML, Robinson JL, Locati EH, Ackerman MJ, Benhorin J, Kaufman ES, Napolitano C, Platonov PG, Priori SG, Qi M, Schwartz PJ, Shimizu W, Towbin JA, Vincent GM, Wilde AA, Zhang L (January 2011). "Risk for life-threatening cardiac events in patients with genotype-confirmed long-QT syndrome and normal-range corrected QT intervals". J Am Coll Cardiol. 57 (1): 51–9. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2010.07.038. PMC 3332533. PMID 21185501.
- ↑ Sara, Jaskanwal D.; Eleid, Mackram F.; Gulati, Rajiv; Holmes, David R. (2014). "Sudden Cardiac Death From the Perspective of Coronary Artery Disease". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 89 (12): 1685–1698. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.08.022. ISSN 0025-6196.
- ↑ O'Mahony C, Elliott P, McKenna W (April 2013). "Sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy". Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 6 (2): 443–51. doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.111.962043. PMID 23022709.
- ↑ Qiu M, Lv B, Lin W, Ma J, Dong H (December 2018). "Sudden cardiac death due to the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome: A case report with genetic analysis". Medicine (Baltimore). 97 (51): e13248. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000013248. PMC 6320009. PMID 30572429.
- ↑ Zheng, Jingjing; Zheng, Da; Su, Terry; Cheng, Jianding (2018). "Sudden Unexplained Nocturnal Death Syndrome: The Hundred Years' Enigma". Journal of the American Heart Association. 7 (5). doi:10.1161/JAHA.117.007837. ISSN 2047-9980.
- ↑ Viskin S (May 2017). "Idiopathic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia: a "Benign Disease" with a Touch of Bad Luck?". Korean Circ J. 47 (3): 299–306. doi:10.4070/kcj.2016.0303. PMC 5449521. PMID 28567077.