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==Overview==
==Overview==
==Advancing immunology research==
The role of [[T cells]] concomitant to ''Borrelia'' infection was first made in 1984,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Newman K, Johnson RC |title=T-cell-independent elimination of Borrelia turicatae |journal=Infect. Immun. |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=572-6 |year=1984 |pmid=6332075}}</ref> and long term persistence of T cell [[lymphocyte]] responses to ''B. burgdorferi'' as an "immunological scar syndrome" was hypothesized in 1990.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Krüger H, Pulz M, Martin R, Sticht-Groh V |title=Long-term persistence of specific T- and B-lymphocyte responses to Borrelia burgdorferi following untreated neuroborreliosis |journal=Infection |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=263-7 |year=1990 |pmid=2276818}}</ref>  The role of [[Th1]] and [[interferon-gamma]] (IFN-gamma) in borrelia was first described in 1995.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Forsberg P, Ernerudh J, Ekerfelt C, Roberg M, Vrethem M, Bergström S |title=The outer surface proteins of Lyme disease borrelia spirochetes stimulate T cells to secrete interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma): diagnostic and pathogenic implications |journal=Clin. Exp. Immunol. |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=453-60 |year=1995 |pmid=7664493}}</ref>  The [[cytokine]] pattern of Lyme disease, and the role of Th1 with down regulation of [[interleukin-10]] (IL-10) was first proposed in 1997.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Yin Z, Braun J, Neure L, ''et al'' |title=T cell cytokine pattern in the joints of patients with Lyme arthritis and its regulation by cytokines and anticytokines |journal=Arthritis Rheum. |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=69-79 |year=1997 |pmid=9008602}}</ref>
===Inflammation===
{{see|Innate immune system|Cell signaling networks}}
Recent studies in both acute and antibiotic refractory, or chronic, Lyme disease have shown a distinct pro-[[inflammatory]] immune process.  This pro-inflammatory process is a [[cell-mediated immunity]] and results in Th1 upregulation.  These studies have shown a significant decrease in [[cytokine]] output of (IL-10), an upregulation of [[Interleukin-6]] (IL-6), [[Interleukin-12]] (IL-12) and IFN-gamma and disregulation in [[TNF-alpha]] predominantly.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shin JJ, Glickstein LJ, Steere AC |title=High levels of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines in joint fluid and synovial tissue throughout the course of antibiotic-refractory lyme arthritis |journal=Arthritis Rheum. |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1325-35 |year=2007 |pmid=17393419 |doi=10.1002/art.22441}}</ref>
These studies suggest that the host immune response to infection results in increased levels of IFN-gamma in the serum and lesions of Lyme disease patients that correlate with greater severity of disease. IFN-gamma alters gene expression by [[endothelium|endothelia]] exposed to ''B. burgdorferi'' in a manner that promotes recruitment of [[T cells]] and suppresses that of [[neutrophils]].
Studies also suggest suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) [[proteins]] are induced by cytokines, and T cell receptor can down-regulate cytokine and T cell signaling in [[macrophages]]. It is hypothesized that SOCS are induced by IL-10 and ''B. burgdorferi'' and its [[lipoproteins]] in macrophages, and that SOCS may mediate the inhibition of IL-10 by concomitantly elicited cytokines.  IL-10 is generally regarded as an anti-inflammatory cytokine, since it acts on a variety of cell types to suppress production of proinflammatory mediators.
Researchers are also beginning to identify [[microglia]] as a previously unappreciated source of inflammatory mediator production following infection with ''B. burgdorferi''. Such production may play an important role during the development of cognitive disorders in Lyme neuroborreliosis. This effect is associated with induction of [[NF-κB|nuclear factor-kappa B]] (NF-KB) by ''Borrelia''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rasley A, Anguita J, Marriott I |title=Borrelia burgdorferi induces inflammatory mediator production by murine microglia |journal=J. Neuroimmunol. |volume=130 |issue=1-2 |pages=22-31 |year=2002 |pmid=12225885}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rasley A, Tranguch SL, Rati DM, Marriott I |title=Murine glia express the immunosuppressive cytokine, interleukin-10, following exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi or Neisseria meningitidis |journal=Glia |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=583-92 |year=2006 |pmid=16419089 |doi=10.1002/glia.20314}}</ref>
Disregulated production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-alpha can lead to neuronal damage in ''Borrelia'' infected patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramesh G, Philipp MT |title=Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=384 |issue=1-2 |pages=112-6 |year=2005 |pmid=15893422 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069}}</ref> IL-6 and TNF-Alpha cytokines produce fatigue and malaise, two of the more prominent symptoms experienced by patients with chronic Lyme disease.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia-lyme.org/flatp/treatment.html |title=Welcome to Lyme Disease Research Studies |accessdate=2007-08-23 |format= |work=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Papanicolaou DA, Wilder RL, Manolagas SC, Chrousos GP |title=The pathophysiologic roles of interleukin-6 in human disease |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=128 |issue=2 |pages=127-37 |year=1998 |pmid=9441573}}</ref>IL-6 is also significantly indicated in cognitive impairment.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wright CB, Sacco RL, Rundek TR, ''et al'' |title=Interleukin-6 is associated with cognitive function: the Northern Manhattan Study |journal= |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=34-38 |year=2006 |pmid=16501663 |doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2005.08.009}}</ref>
===Neuroendocrine===
{{see|Signal transduction}}
A developing hypothesis is that the chronic secretion of [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] [[hormones]] as a result of ''Borrelia'' infection may reduce the effect of [[neurotransmitters]], or other receptors in the brain by cell-mediated pro-inflammatory pathways, thereby leading to the dysregulation of neurohormones, specifically [[glucocorticoids]] and [[catecholamines]], the major stress hormones. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Elenkov IJ, Iezzoni DG, Daly A, Harris AG, Chrousos GP |title=Cytokine dysregulation, inflammation and well-being |journal=Neuroimmunomodulation |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=255-69 |year=2005 |pmid=16166805 |doi=10.1159/000087104}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Calcagni E, Elenkov I |title=Stress system activity, innate and T helper cytokines, and susceptibility to immune-related diseases |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1069 |issue= |pages=62-76 |year=2006 |pmid=16855135 |doi=10.1196/annals.1351.006}}</ref>This process is mediated via the [[Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]]. Additionally [[Tryptophan]], a precursor to [[serotonin]] appears to be reduced within the CNS in a number of infectious diseases that affect the brain, including Lyme.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gasse T, Murr C, Meyersbach P, ''et al'' |title=Neopterin production and tryptophan degradation in acute Lyme neuroborreliosis versus late Lyme encephalopathy |journal=European journal of clinical chemistry and clinical biochemistry : journal of the Forum of European Clinical Chemistry Societies |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=685-9 |year=1994 |pmid=7865624}}</ref> Researchers are investigating if this neurohormone secretion is the cause of neuro-psychiatric disorders developing in some patients with borreliosis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zajkowska J, Grygorczuk S, Kondrusik M, Pancewicz S, Hermanowska-Szpakowicz T |title=New aspects of pathogenesis of Lyme borreliosis |language=Polish |journal=Przegla̧d epidemiologiczny |volume=60 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=167-70 |year=2006 |pmid=16909797}}</ref>
 
[[Antidepressants]] acting on serotonin, [[norepinephrine]] and [[dopamine]] receptors have been shown to be immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory against pro-inflammatory cytokine processes, specifically on the regulation of IFN-gamma and IL-10, as well as TNF-alpha and IL-6 through a [[Psychoneuroimmunology|psycho-neuroimmunological]] process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kubera M, Lin AH, Kenis G, Bosmans E, van Bockstaele D, Maes M |title=Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio |journal=Journal of clinical psychopharmacology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=199-206 |year=2001 |pmid=11270917}}</ref> Antidepressants have also been shown to suppress Th1 upregulation.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Diamond M, Kelly JP, Connor TJ |title=Antidepressants suppress production of the Th1 cytokine interferon-gamma, independent of monoamine transporter blockade |journal=European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=481-90 |year=2006 |pmid=16388933 |doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.11.011}}</ref>These studies warrant investigation for antidepressants for use in a psycho-neuroimmunological approach for optimal [[pharmacotherapy]] of antibiotic refractory Lyme patients.
===New developments===
New research has also found that chronic Lyme patients have higher amounts of ''Borrelia''-specific [[FoxP3|forkhead box P3]] (FoxP3) than healthy controls, indicating that [[regulatory T cell]]s might also play a role, by [[immunosuppression]], in the development of chronic Lyme disease. FoxP3 are a specific marker of regulatory T cells.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jarefors S, Janefjord CK, Forsberg P, Jenmalm MC, Ekerfelt C |title=Decreased up-regulation of the interleukin-12Rbeta2-chain and interferon-gamma secretion and increased number of forkhead box P3-expressing cells in patients with a history of chronic Lyme borreliosis compared with asymptomatic Borrelia-exposed individuals |journal=Clin. Exp. Immunol. |volume=147 |issue=1 |pages=18-27 |year=2007 |pmid=17177959 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03245.x}}</ref> The signaling pathway [[P38 mitogen-activated protein kinases]] (p38 MAP kinase) has also been identified as promoting expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines from ''Borrelia''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramesh G, Philipp MT |title=Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins |journal=Neurosci. Lett. |volume=384 |issue=1-2 |pages=112-6 |year=2005 |pmid=15893422 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069}}</ref>
The culmination of these new and ongoing immunological studies suggest this cell-mediated immune disruption in the Lyme patient amplifies the inflammatory process, often rendering it chronic and self-perpetuating, regardless of whether the ''Borrelia'' bacterium is still present in the host, or in the absence of the inciting pathogen in an [[autoimmune]] pattern.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh SK, Girschick HJ |title=Toll-like receptors in Borrelia burgdorferi-induced inflammation |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Infect. |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=705-17 |year=2006 |pmid=16842565 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01440.x}}</ref>
Researchers hope that this new developing understanding of the [[biomolecular]] basis and [[pathology]] of cell-mediated signaling events caused by ''B. burgdorferi'' infection will lead to a greater understanding of immune response and inflammation caused by Lyme disease and, hopefully, new treatment strategies for chronic antibiotic-resistant disease.
==Lyme funding and treatment controversy==
Many of the scientists involved in formulating what have become controversial Lyme diagnostic tests and treatment guidelines have been heavily involved in both bioweapons research and commercial vaccine and diagnostic test development, which the Lyme patient community views  as a conflict of interest. <ref>Conflicts of Interest in Lyme Disease: Treatment, Laboratory Testing, and Vaccination, Lyme Disease Association Inc., 2001</ref>
In response to these and other concerns expressed by the expanding national community of patients, Richard Blumenthal, the Attorney General of Connecticut has launched an investigation exploring possible corruption.
To date, federal research aimed at developing treatments for chronic Lyme disease is roughly $30 million, as contrasted to a $22 billion budget for military biodefense.  Scientists setting Lyme treatment and diagnostic testing policy in the United States have a well publicised history in the biodefense field, and many have recently received lucrative biodefense grants for BSL-3 and BSL-4 Labs where, critics contend, Lyme treatment research lacks transparency, accountability and  focus on treatment research<ref>Biocontainment lab planned at Primate Center,
PONTCHARTRAIN NEWSPAPERS COVINGTON, St.Tammany News, www.newsbanner.com Dec. 13, 2004</ref><ref>"Lyme Disease is  Biowarfare Issue" by Elena Cooke, published/discussed by Dave Emory, WFMU Talk Show Host, 2007 http://ftrsupplemental.blogspot.com/2007/02/history-of-lyme-disease-as-bioweapon.html</ref>, though, it should be pointed out, that labs obtaining such grants are required to make their research findings publicly available via publication and focus their studies on issues pertinent to human health <ref>[http://grants1.nih.gov/grants/policy/policy.htm]</ref>. Most, including scientist, contend that the new grants and centers stimulate research by bringing together experts in the field and providing a stable source of funding.<ref>[http://www.ucihealth.com/News/Releases/06-05BiodefenseResearch.htm UCI Medical Centre, June 1, 2005]</ref>
In 2003, Lyme researcher Dr. Mark Klempner was appointed head of the new $1.6 billion biodefense top-security facility at [[Boston University]].<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27646-2005Jan21.html Washington Post January 22, 2005]</ref> In 2004, Lyme researcher Dr. Jorge Benach,<ref>[http://www.nystar.state.ny.us/nl/archives2004/longislandA08-04.htm NYStar News Publication of the New York State Office of Science, Technology and Academic Research, August 2004]</ref> was reportedly chosen as a recipient for a $3 million biodefense research grant, and in 2005, Lyme researcher Dr. Alan Barbour was reportedly placed in charge of a $40 million dollar new biodefense complex based at UC Irvine.  <ref>[http://www.ucihealth.com/News/Releases/06-05BiodefenseResearch.htm UCI Medical Centre, June 1, 2005]</ref>
Former NIH [[Lyme disease]] program officer, Edward McSweegan has  published numerous articles and letters to editorial pages relating to biowarfare topics ranging from anthrax to plague.  Curiously, Mr. McSweegan's novel, Deliberate Release, is biowarfare thriller that describes the deliberate release of a germ weapon. <ref> McSweegan, Edward , "Deliberate Release", published September 20, 2002 by 1st Books Library, ISBN-10: 1403343535.</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 19:34, 8 February 2012

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]

Overview

Advancing immunology research

The role of T cells concomitant to Borrelia infection was first made in 1984,[1] and long term persistence of T cell lymphocyte responses to B. burgdorferi as an "immunological scar syndrome" was hypothesized in 1990.[2] The role of Th1 and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) in borrelia was first described in 1995.[3] The cytokine pattern of Lyme disease, and the role of Th1 with down regulation of interleukin-10 (IL-10) was first proposed in 1997.[4]

Inflammation

Further information: Innate immune system and Cell signaling networks

Recent studies in both acute and antibiotic refractory, or chronic, Lyme disease have shown a distinct pro-inflammatory immune process. This pro-inflammatory process is a cell-mediated immunity and results in Th1 upregulation. These studies have shown a significant decrease in cytokine output of (IL-10), an upregulation of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IFN-gamma and disregulation in TNF-alpha predominantly.[5]

These studies suggest that the host immune response to infection results in increased levels of IFN-gamma in the serum and lesions of Lyme disease patients that correlate with greater severity of disease. IFN-gamma alters gene expression by endothelia exposed to B. burgdorferi in a manner that promotes recruitment of T cells and suppresses that of neutrophils.

Studies also suggest suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are induced by cytokines, and T cell receptor can down-regulate cytokine and T cell signaling in macrophages. It is hypothesized that SOCS are induced by IL-10 and B. burgdorferi and its lipoproteins in macrophages, and that SOCS may mediate the inhibition of IL-10 by concomitantly elicited cytokines. IL-10 is generally regarded as an anti-inflammatory cytokine, since it acts on a variety of cell types to suppress production of proinflammatory mediators.

Researchers are also beginning to identify microglia as a previously unappreciated source of inflammatory mediator production following infection with B. burgdorferi. Such production may play an important role during the development of cognitive disorders in Lyme neuroborreliosis. This effect is associated with induction of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-KB) by Borrelia.[6][7]

Disregulated production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-alpha can lead to neuronal damage in Borrelia infected patients.[8] IL-6 and TNF-Alpha cytokines produce fatigue and malaise, two of the more prominent symptoms experienced by patients with chronic Lyme disease.[9][10]IL-6 is also significantly indicated in cognitive impairment.[11]

Neuroendocrine

Further information: Signal transduction

A developing hypothesis is that the chronic secretion of stress hormones as a result of Borrelia infection may reduce the effect of neurotransmitters, or other receptors in the brain by cell-mediated pro-inflammatory pathways, thereby leading to the dysregulation of neurohormones, specifically glucocorticoids and catecholamines, the major stress hormones. [12][13]This process is mediated via the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Additionally Tryptophan, a precursor to serotonin appears to be reduced within the CNS in a number of infectious diseases that affect the brain, including Lyme.[14] Researchers are investigating if this neurohormone secretion is the cause of neuro-psychiatric disorders developing in some patients with borreliosis.[15]

Antidepressants acting on serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine receptors have been shown to be immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory against pro-inflammatory cytokine processes, specifically on the regulation of IFN-gamma and IL-10, as well as TNF-alpha and IL-6 through a psycho-neuroimmunological process.[16] Antidepressants have also been shown to suppress Th1 upregulation.[17]These studies warrant investigation for antidepressants for use in a psycho-neuroimmunological approach for optimal pharmacotherapy of antibiotic refractory Lyme patients.

New developments

New research has also found that chronic Lyme patients have higher amounts of Borrelia-specific forkhead box P3 (FoxP3) than healthy controls, indicating that regulatory T cells might also play a role, by immunosuppression, in the development of chronic Lyme disease. FoxP3 are a specific marker of regulatory T cells.[18] The signaling pathway P38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38 MAP kinase) has also been identified as promoting expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines from Borrelia.[19]

The culmination of these new and ongoing immunological studies suggest this cell-mediated immune disruption in the Lyme patient amplifies the inflammatory process, often rendering it chronic and self-perpetuating, regardless of whether the Borrelia bacterium is still present in the host, or in the absence of the inciting pathogen in an autoimmune pattern.[20]

Researchers hope that this new developing understanding of the biomolecular basis and pathology of cell-mediated signaling events caused by B. burgdorferi infection will lead to a greater understanding of immune response and inflammation caused by Lyme disease and, hopefully, new treatment strategies for chronic antibiotic-resistant disease.

Lyme funding and treatment controversy

Many of the scientists involved in formulating what have become controversial Lyme diagnostic tests and treatment guidelines have been heavily involved in both bioweapons research and commercial vaccine and diagnostic test development, which the Lyme patient community views as a conflict of interest. [21] In response to these and other concerns expressed by the expanding national community of patients, Richard Blumenthal, the Attorney General of Connecticut has launched an investigation exploring possible corruption.

To date, federal research aimed at developing treatments for chronic Lyme disease is roughly $30 million, as contrasted to a $22 billion budget for military biodefense. Scientists setting Lyme treatment and diagnostic testing policy in the United States have a well publicised history in the biodefense field, and many have recently received lucrative biodefense grants for BSL-3 and BSL-4 Labs where, critics contend, Lyme treatment research lacks transparency, accountability and focus on treatment research[22][23], though, it should be pointed out, that labs obtaining such grants are required to make their research findings publicly available via publication and focus their studies on issues pertinent to human health [24]. Most, including scientist, contend that the new grants and centers stimulate research by bringing together experts in the field and providing a stable source of funding.[25]

In 2003, Lyme researcher Dr. Mark Klempner was appointed head of the new $1.6 billion biodefense top-security facility at Boston University.[26] In 2004, Lyme researcher Dr. Jorge Benach,[27] was reportedly chosen as a recipient for a $3 million biodefense research grant, and in 2005, Lyme researcher Dr. Alan Barbour was reportedly placed in charge of a $40 million dollar new biodefense complex based at UC Irvine. [28]

Former NIH Lyme disease program officer, Edward McSweegan has published numerous articles and letters to editorial pages relating to biowarfare topics ranging from anthrax to plague. Curiously, Mr. McSweegan's novel, Deliberate Release, is biowarfare thriller that describes the deliberate release of a germ weapon. [29]

References

  1. ↑ Newman K, Johnson RC (1984). "T-cell-independent elimination of Borrelia turicatae". Infect. Immun. 45 (3): 572–6. PMID 6332075.
  2. ↑ Krüger H, Pulz M, Martin R, Sticht-Groh V (1990). "Long-term persistence of specific T- and B-lymphocyte responses to Borrelia burgdorferi following untreated neuroborreliosis". Infection. 18 (5): 263–7. PMID 2276818.
  3. ↑ Forsberg P, Ernerudh J, Ekerfelt C, Roberg M, Vrethem M, Bergström S (1995). "The outer surface proteins of Lyme disease borrelia spirochetes stimulate T cells to secrete interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma): diagnostic and pathogenic implications". Clin. Exp. Immunol. 101 (3): 453–60. PMID 7664493.
  4. ↑ Yin Z, Braun J, Neure L; et al. (1997). "T cell cytokine pattern in the joints of patients with Lyme arthritis and its regulation by cytokines and anticytokines". Arthritis Rheum. 40 (1): 69–79. PMID 9008602.
  5. ↑ Shin JJ, Glickstein LJ, Steere AC (2007). "High levels of inflammatory chemokines and cytokines in joint fluid and synovial tissue throughout the course of antibiotic-refractory lyme arthritis". Arthritis Rheum. 56 (4): 1325–35. doi:10.1002/art.22441. PMID 17393419.
  6. ↑ Rasley A, Anguita J, Marriott I (2002). "Borrelia burgdorferi induces inflammatory mediator production by murine microglia". J. Neuroimmunol. 130 (1–2): 22–31. PMID 12225885.
  7. ↑ Rasley A, Tranguch SL, Rati DM, Marriott I (2006). "Murine glia express the immunosuppressive cytokine, interleukin-10, following exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi or Neisseria meningitidis". Glia. 53 (6): 583–92. doi:10.1002/glia.20314. PMID 16419089.
  8. ↑ Ramesh G, Philipp MT (2005). "Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins". Neurosci. Lett. 384 (1–2): 112–6. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069. PMID 15893422.
  9. ↑ "Welcome to Lyme Disease Research Studies". Retrieved 2007-08-23.
  10. ↑ Papanicolaou DA, Wilder RL, Manolagas SC, Chrousos GP (1998). "The pathophysiologic roles of interleukin-6 in human disease". Ann. Intern. Med. 128 (2): 127–37. PMID 9441573.
  11. ↑ Wright CB, Sacco RL, Rundek TR; et al. (2006). "Interleukin-6 is associated with cognitive function: the Northern Manhattan Study". 15 (1): 34–38. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2005.08.009. PMID 16501663.
  12. ↑ Elenkov IJ, Iezzoni DG, Daly A, Harris AG, Chrousos GP (2005). "Cytokine dysregulation, inflammation and well-being". Neuroimmunomodulation. 12 (5): 255–69. doi:10.1159/000087104. PMID 16166805.
  13. ↑ Calcagni E, Elenkov I (2006). "Stress system activity, innate and T helper cytokines, and susceptibility to immune-related diseases". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1069: 62–76. doi:10.1196/annals.1351.006. PMID 16855135.
  14. ↑ Gasse T, Murr C, Meyersbach P; et al. (1994). "Neopterin production and tryptophan degradation in acute Lyme neuroborreliosis versus late Lyme encephalopathy". European journal of clinical chemistry and clinical biochemistry : journal of the Forum of European Clinical Chemistry Societies. 32 (9): 685–9. PMID 7865624.
  15. ↑ Zajkowska J, Grygorczuk S, Kondrusik M, Pancewicz S, Hermanowska-Szpakowicz T (2006). "New aspects of pathogenesis of Lyme borreliosis". Przegla̧d epidemiologiczny (in Polish). 60 Suppl 1: 167–70. PMID 16909797.
  16. ↑ Kubera M, Lin AH, Kenis G, Bosmans E, van Bockstaele D, Maes M (2001). "Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio". Journal of clinical psychopharmacology. 21 (2): 199–206. PMID 11270917.
  17. ↑ Diamond M, Kelly JP, Connor TJ (2006). "Antidepressants suppress production of the Th1 cytokine interferon-gamma, independent of monoamine transporter blockade". European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. 16 (7): 481–90. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.11.011. PMID 16388933.
  18. ↑ Jarefors S, Janefjord CK, Forsberg P, Jenmalm MC, Ekerfelt C (2007). "Decreased up-regulation of the interleukin-12Rbeta2-chain and interferon-gamma secretion and increased number of forkhead box P3-expressing cells in patients with a history of chronic Lyme borreliosis compared with asymptomatic Borrelia-exposed individuals". Clin. Exp. Immunol. 147 (1): 18–27. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03245.x. PMID 17177959.
  19. ↑ Ramesh G, Philipp MT (2005). "Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1, Erk2, and p38 in the response of astrocytes to Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins". Neurosci. Lett. 384 (1–2): 112–6. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.04.069. PMID 15893422.
  20. ↑ Singh SK, Girschick HJ (2006). "Toll-like receptors in Borrelia burgdorferi-induced inflammation". Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12 (8): 705–17. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01440.x. PMID 16842565.
  21. ↑ Conflicts of Interest in Lyme Disease: Treatment, Laboratory Testing, and Vaccination, Lyme Disease Association Inc., 2001
  22. ↑ Biocontainment lab planned at Primate Center, PONTCHARTRAIN NEWSPAPERS COVINGTON, St.Tammany News, www.newsbanner.com Dec. 13, 2004
  23. ↑ "Lyme Disease is Biowarfare Issue" by Elena Cooke, published/discussed by Dave Emory, WFMU Talk Show Host, 2007 http://ftrsupplemental.blogspot.com/2007/02/history-of-lyme-disease-as-bioweapon.html
  24. ↑ [1]
  25. ↑ UCI Medical Centre, June 1, 2005
  26. ↑ Washington Post January 22, 2005
  27. ↑ NYStar News Publication of the New York State Office of Science, Technology and Academic Research, August 2004
  28. ↑ UCI Medical Centre, June 1, 2005
  29. ↑ McSweegan, Edward , "Deliberate Release", published September 20, 2002 by 1st Books Library, ISBN-10: 1403343535.


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