Smallpox eradication: Difference between revisions
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==Eradication== | ==Eradication== | ||
Since Jenner demonstrated the effectiveness of cowpox to protect humans from smallpox in 1796, various attempts were made to eliminate smallpox on a regional scale. As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis Expedition) to transport the [[vaccine]] to the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines, and establish mass vaccination programs there. The US Congress passed the Vaccine Act of 1813 to ensure that safe smallpox vaccine would be available to the American public. By about 1817, a very solid state vaccination program existed in the Dutch East Indies. In British India a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination, through Indian vaccinators, under the supervision of European | Since Jenner demonstrated the effectiveness of cowpox to protect humans from smallpox in 1796, various attempts were made to eliminate smallpox on a regional scale. As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis Expedition) to transport the [[vaccine]] to the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines, and establish mass vaccination programs there. The US Congress passed the Vaccine Act of 1813 to ensure that safe smallpox vaccine would be available to the American public. By about 1817, a very solid state vaccination program existed in the Dutch East Indies. In British India a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination, through Indian vaccinators, under the supervision of European officials. Nevertheless, British vaccination efforts in India, and in Burma in particular, were hampered by stubborn indigenous preference for [[inoculation]] and distrust of vaccination, despite tough legislation, improvements in the local efficacy of the vaccine and vaccine preservative, and education efforts<ref name="urlState of vaccination: the fight against smallpox in colonial Burma">{{cite web |url=http://indianmedicine.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/root/N2/284n/ |title=State of vaccination: the fight against smallpox in colonial Burma |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-03-09}}</ref>. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans<ref name="urlIndian Health Manual (IHM) - Chapter 3 - Indian Health Program - Part 1 - General">{{cite web |url=http://www.ihs.gov/ihm/index.cfm?module=dsp_ihm_pc_p1c3 |title=Indian Health Manual (IHM) - Chapter 3 - Indian Health Program - Part 1 - General |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-03-09}}</ref>. In 1842, the United Kingdom banned inoculation, later progressing to mandatory vaccination. The British government introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination by an Act of Parliament in 1853. In the United States, from 1843 to 1855 first Massachusetts, and then other states required smallpox vaccination. Although some disliked these measures,<ref name="isbn0-226-35168-8">{{cite book |author=Hopkins, Donald R. |title=The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=2002 |pages= |isbn=0-226-35168-8 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> coordinated efforts against smallpox went on, and the disease continued to diminish in the wealthy countries. By 1897, smallpox had largely been eliminated from the United States<ref name="urlSign In">{{cite web |url=http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/2/171.short |title=Sign In |format= |work= |accessdate=2012-03-09}}</ref>. In Northern Europe a number of countries had eliminated smallpox by 1900, and by 1914, the incidence in most industrialized countries had decreased to comparatively low levels. Vaccination continued in industrialized countries, until the mid to late 1970s as protection against reintroduction. Australia and New Zealand are two notable exceptions; neither experienced [[endemic]] smallpox and never vaccinated widely, relying instead on protection by distance and strict quarantines<ref name="isbn0-7216-7443-7">{{cite book |author=Orenstein, Walter A.; Plotkin, Stanley A. |title=Vaccines |publisher=W.B. Saunders Co |location=Philadelphia |year=1999 |pages= |isbn=0-7216-7443-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. | ||
The first hemisphere-wide effort to eradicate smallpox was made in 1950 by the Pan American Health Organization<ref name="pmid167890">{{cite journal |author=Rodrigues BA |title=Smallpox eradication in the Americas |journal=[[Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=53–68 |year=1975 |pmid=167890 |doi= |url= |accessdate=2012-03-09}}</ref>. The campaign was successful in eliminating smallpox from all American countries except Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador<ref name="isbn0-7216-7443-7">{{cite book |author=Orenstein, Walter A.; Plotkin, Stanley A. |title=Vaccines |publisher=W.B. Saunders Co |location=Philadelphia |year=1999 |pages= |isbn=0-7216-7443-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. In 1958 Professor Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox. The proposal (Resolution WHA11.54) was accepted in 1959<ref name="isbn92-4-156110-6">{{cite book |author=Fenner, Frank |title=Smallpox and Its Eradication (History of International Public Health, No. 6) |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |year=1989 |pages= |isbn=92-4-156110-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. At this point, 2 million people were dying from smallpox every year. Overall, however, the progress towards eradication was disappointing, especially in Africa and in the Indian subcontinent. In 1966 an international team, the Smallpox Eradication Unit, was formed under the leadership of an American, Donald Henderson<ref name="isbn92-4-156110-6">{{cite book |author=Fenner, Frank |title=Smallpox and Its Eradication (History of International Public Health, No. 6) |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |year=1989 |pages= |isbn=92-4-156110-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. In 1967, the World Health Organization intensified the global smallpox eradication by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort. | The first hemisphere-wide effort to eradicate smallpox was made in 1950 by the Pan American Health Organization<ref name="pmid167890">{{cite journal |author=Rodrigues BA |title=Smallpox eradication in the Americas |journal=[[Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=53–68 |year=1975 |pmid=167890 |doi= |url= |accessdate=2012-03-09}}</ref>. The campaign was successful in eliminating smallpox from all American countries except Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador<ref name="isbn0-7216-7443-7">{{cite book |author=Orenstein, Walter A.; Plotkin, Stanley A. |title=Vaccines |publisher=W.B. Saunders Co |location=Philadelphia |year=1999 |pages= |isbn=0-7216-7443-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. In 1958 Professor Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox. The proposal (Resolution WHA11.54) was accepted in 1959<ref name="isbn92-4-156110-6">{{cite book |author=Fenner, Frank |title=Smallpox and Its Eradication (History of International Public Health, No. 6) |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |year=1989 |pages= |isbn=92-4-156110-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. At this point, 2 million people were dying from smallpox every year. Overall, however, the progress towards eradication was disappointing, especially in Africa and in the Indian subcontinent. In 1966 an international team, the Smallpox Eradication Unit, was formed under the leadership of an American, Donald Henderson<ref name="isbn92-4-156110-6">{{cite book |author=Fenner, Frank |title=Smallpox and Its Eradication (History of International Public Health, No. 6) |publisher=World Health Organization |location=Geneva |year=1989 |pages= |isbn=92-4-156110-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>. In 1967, the World Health Organization intensified the global smallpox eradication by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort. | ||
Revision as of 19:20, 13 March 2012
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Overview
The eradication of smallpox required a global effort. Every country was susceptible to the devastating disease. Eradicating this infection would take many years a significant sum of money, but with a worldwide commitment, it would be possible. Success was achieved in the 1970s and smallpox was officially eradicated.
Eradication
Since Jenner demonstrated the effectiveness of cowpox to protect humans from smallpox in 1796, various attempts were made to eliminate smallpox on a regional scale. As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis Expedition) to transport the vaccine to the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines, and establish mass vaccination programs there. The US Congress passed the Vaccine Act of 1813 to ensure that safe smallpox vaccine would be available to the American public. By about 1817, a very solid state vaccination program existed in the Dutch East Indies. In British India a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination, through Indian vaccinators, under the supervision of European officials. Nevertheless, British vaccination efforts in India, and in Burma in particular, were hampered by stubborn indigenous preference for inoculation and distrust of vaccination, despite tough legislation, improvements in the local efficacy of the vaccine and vaccine preservative, and education efforts[1]. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans[2]. In 1842, the United Kingdom banned inoculation, later progressing to mandatory vaccination. The British government introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination by an Act of Parliament in 1853. In the United States, from 1843 to 1855 first Massachusetts, and then other states required smallpox vaccination. Although some disliked these measures,[3] coordinated efforts against smallpox went on, and the disease continued to diminish in the wealthy countries. By 1897, smallpox had largely been eliminated from the United States[4]. In Northern Europe a number of countries had eliminated smallpox by 1900, and by 1914, the incidence in most industrialized countries had decreased to comparatively low levels. Vaccination continued in industrialized countries, until the mid to late 1970s as protection against reintroduction. Australia and New Zealand are two notable exceptions; neither experienced endemic smallpox and never vaccinated widely, relying instead on protection by distance and strict quarantines[5].
The first hemisphere-wide effort to eradicate smallpox was made in 1950 by the Pan American Health Organization[6]. The campaign was successful in eliminating smallpox from all American countries except Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador[5]. In 1958 Professor Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox. The proposal (Resolution WHA11.54) was accepted in 1959[7]. At this point, 2 million people were dying from smallpox every year. Overall, however, the progress towards eradication was disappointing, especially in Africa and in the Indian subcontinent. In 1966 an international team, the Smallpox Eradication Unit, was formed under the leadership of an American, Donald Henderson[7]. In 1967, the World Health Organization intensified the global smallpox eradication by contributing $2.4 million annually to the effort.
In the early 1950s an estimated 50 million cases of smallpox occurred in the world each year. To eradicate smallpox, each outbreak had to be stopped from spreading, by isolation of cases and vaccination of everyone who lived close by. This process is known as "ring vaccination". The key to this strategy was monitoring of cases in a community (known as surveillance) and containment. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases, as many cases did not come to the attention of the authorities. The fact that humans are the only reservoir for smallpox infection, and that carriers did not exist, played a significant role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. Early on donations of vaccine were provided primarily by the Soviet Union and the United States, but by 1973, more than 80% of all vaccine was produced in developing countries[5].
The last major European outbreak of smallpox was in 1972 in Yugoslavia, after a pilgrim from Kosovo returned from the Middle East, where he had contracted the virus. The epidemic infected 175 people, causing 35 deaths. Authorities declared martial law, enforced quarantine, and undertook widespread re-vaccination of the population, enlisting the help of the WHO. In two months, the outbreak was over[8]. Prior to this, there had been a smallpox outbreak in May–July 1963 in Stockholm Sweden, brought from the Far East by a Swedish sailor; this had been dealt with by quarantine measures and vaccination of the local population.
By the end of 1975, smallpox persisted only in the Horn of Africa. Conditions were very difficult in Ethiopia and Somalia, where there were few roads. Civil war, famine, and refugees made the task even more difficult. An intensive surveillance and containment and vaccination program was undertaken in these countries in early and mid-1977, under the direction of Australian microbiologist Frank Fenner. As the campaign neared its goal, Fenner and his team played an important role in verifying eradication[9]. The last naturally occurring case of indigenous smallpox (Variola minor) was diagnosed in Ali Maow Maalin, a hospital cook in Merca, Somalia, on 26 October 1977[10]. The last naturally occurring case of the more deadly Variola major had been detected in October 1975 in a two-year-old Bangladeshi girl, Rahima Banu[11].
References
- ↑ "State of vaccination: the fight against smallpox in colonial Burma". Retrieved 2012-03-09.
- ↑ "Indian Health Manual (IHM) - Chapter 3 - Indian Health Program - Part 1 - General". Retrieved 2012-03-09.
- ↑ Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-35168-8.
- ↑ "Sign In". Retrieved 2012-03-09.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Orenstein, Walter A.; Plotkin, Stanley A. (1999). Vaccines. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co. ISBN 0-7216-7443-7.
- ↑ Rodrigues BA (1975). "Smallpox eradication in the Americas". Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization. 9 (1): 53–68. PMID 167890.
|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ↑ 7.0 7.1 Fenner, Frank (1989). Smallpox and Its Eradication (History of International Public Health, No. 6). Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-156110-6.
- ↑ "BBC - History - British History in depth: Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge". Retrieved 2012-03-09.
- ↑ "Frank Fenner Dies at 95 - Tracked End of Smallpox - NYTimes.com". Retrieved 2012-03-09.
- ↑ "web.archive.org" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-03-09.
- ↑ "The Demon In the Freezer". Retrieved 2012-03-09.