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==Overview==
==Overview==
Established risk factors for essential hypertension include increased alcohol intake (more than 2 drinks per day), increased salt intake in diet (more than 2 gm per day), obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise.  All these risk factor are reversible.
Established risk factors for essential [[hypertension]] include African American ethnicity, [[dyslipidemia]], [[diabetes mellitus]], increased [[alcohol]] intake, increased [[salt]] intake in diet, [[obesity]], and a sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise.


==Established Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
*Increased alcohol intake (more than 2 drinks per day)
* [[Ethnicity]]: African American<ref name="pmid11136953">{{cite journal| author=Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D et al.| title=Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2001 | volume= 344 | issue= 1 | pages= 3-10 | pmid=11136953 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200101043440101 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11136953  }} </ref>
*Increased salt intake in diet (more than 2 gm per day)
* Genetics and Family history: Paternal or maternal<ref name="pmid18362257">{{cite journal| author=Wang NY, Young JH, Meoni LA, Ford DE, Erlinger TP, Klag MJ| title=Blood pressure change and risk of hypertension associated with parental hypertension: the Johns Hopkins Precursors Study. | journal=Arch Intern Med | year= 2008 | volume= 168 | issue= 6 | pages= 643-8 | pmid=18362257 | doi=10.1001/archinte.168.6.643 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18362257  }} </ref>
*Obesity
* [[Tobacco]]: Especially cigarettes<ref name="pmid14708551">{{cite journal| author=Gupta PC, Ray CS| title=Smokeless tobacco and health in India and South Asia. | journal=Respirology | year= 2003 | volume= 8 | issue= 4 | pages= 419-31 | pmid=14708551 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14708551  }} </ref>
*Sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise
*[[Alcohol]]: Excessive intake of more than 2 alcoholic drinks per day<ref name="pmid7802765">{{cite journal| author=Marmot MG, Elliott P, Shipley MJ, Dyer AR, Ueshima H, Beevers DG et al.| title=Alcohol and blood pressure: the INTERSALT study. | journal=BMJ | year= 1994 | volume= 308 | issue= 6939 | pages= 1263-7 | pmid=7802765 | doi= | pmc=PMC2540174 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7802765  }} </ref>
* [[Dyslipidemia]]: Elevated total cholesterol, [[LDL]], or [[triglyceride]] or low [[HDL]]<ref name="pmid16380527">{{cite journal| author=de Simone G, Devereux RB, Chinali M, Roman MJ, Best LG, Welty TK et al.| title=Risk factors for arterial hypertension in adults with initial optimal blood pressure: the Strong Heart Study. | journal=Hypertension | year= 2006 | volume= 47 | issue= 2 | pages= 162-7 | pmid=16380527 | doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000199103.40105.b5 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16380527  }} </ref>
* [[Diabetes mellitus]]<ref name="pmid16512265">{{cite journal| author=Cuddy ML| title=Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1). | journal=J Pract Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 17-21; quiz 22-3 | pmid=16512265 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16512265  }} </ref>
* Known cardiovascular diseases<ref name="pmid16512265">{{cite journal| author=Cuddy ML| title=Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1). | journal=J Pract Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 17-21; quiz 22-3 | pmid=16512265 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16512265  }} </ref>
* Known kidney diseases<ref name="pmid16512265">{{cite journal| author=Cuddy ML| title=Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1). | journal=J Pract Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 17-21; quiz 22-3 | pmid=16512265 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16512265  }} </ref>
* Diet: Low in fruits and vegetables; excessive sodium intake<ref name="pmid19622819">{{cite journal| author=Forman JP, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC| title=Diet and lifestyle risk factors associated with incident hypertension in women. | journal=JAMA | year= 2009 | volume= 302 | issue= 4 | pages= 401-11 | pmid=19622819 | doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1060 | pmc=PMC2803081 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19622819  }} </ref>
*Obesity and recent weight gain: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2<ref name="pmid2508915">{{cite journal| author=Sonne-Holm S, Sørensen TI, Jensen G, Schnohr P| title=Independent effects of weight change and attained body weight on prevalence of arterial hypertension in obese and non-obese men. | journal=BMJ | year= 1989 | volume= 299 | issue= 6702 | pages= 767-70 | pmid=2508915 | doi= | pmc=PMC1837623 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2508915  }} </ref>
* Sedentary lifestyle and decreased physical activity<ref name="pmid16512265">{{cite journal| author=Cuddy ML| title=Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1). | journal=J Pract Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 17-21; quiz 22-3 | pmid=16512265 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16512265  }} </ref>


==Other Less Established Risk Factors for Hypertension==
* [[Vitamin D Deficiency]]
* Family history of high blood pressure
* Genetic diseases
* High [[fructose]](sugar)corn syrup
* [[Metabolic syndrome]], a condition in which body develops insulin resistance due to obesity and has high blood pressure, sugar,cholesterol and increased waist circumference.
*Black race: Although more common among blacks, it is not clear if environmental factors (Increased salt intake, high cholesterol diet, lower socioeconomic status, stress) or race itself is the cause.
*Family history where parents are hypertensive
*Smoking is generally not considered an independent risk factor for hypertension, but is a risk factor for [[coronary heart disease]].
*High cholesterol diet
*[[Anxiety disorders]]
*[[Type A personality]]. People who are more commmonly impatient and have hostile attitudes may be at risk.


Emerging research is currently studying several new factors that might be contributory and pose risk for the development of essential hypertension, such as:
* [[Vitamin D]] insufficiency<ref name="pmid19687790">{{cite journal| author=Pilz S, Tomaschitz A, Ritz E, Pieber TR| title=Vitamin D status and arterial hypertension: a systematic review. | journal=Nat Rev Cardiol | year= 2009 | volume= 6 | issue= 10 | pages= 621-30 | pmid=19687790 | doi=10.1038/nrcardio.2009.135 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19687790  }} </ref>
* Low ionized serum [[calcium]]<ref name="pmid23181228">{{cite journal| author=Hazari MA, Arifuddin MS, Muzzakar S, Reddy VD| title=Serum calcium level in hypertension. | journal=N Am J Med Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 4 | issue= 11 | pages= 569-72 | pmid=23181228 | doi=10.4103/1947-2714.103316 | pmc=PMC3503375 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23181228  }} </ref>
* [[Hyperinsulinemia]]<ref name="pmid23122695">{{cite journal| author=Park SE, Rhee EJ, Park CY, Oh KW, Park SW, Kim SW et al.| title=Impact of hyperinsulinemia on the development of hypertension in normotensive, nondiabetic adults: a 4-year follow-up study. | journal=Metabolism | year= 2012 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=23122695 | doi=10.1016/j.metabol.2012.09.013 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23122695  }} </ref>
* Preterm birth<ref name="pmid20494733">{{cite journal| author=Norman M| title=Preterm birth--an emerging risk factor for adult hypertension? | journal=Semin Perinatol | year= 2010 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 183-7 | pmid=20494733 | doi=10.1053/j.semperi.2010.02.009 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20494733  }} </ref>
* [[Neurofibromatosis]] Type II<ref name="pmid21638762">{{cite journal| author=Hornigold RE, Golding JF, Ferner RE, Ferner RE| title=Neurofibromatosis 2: a novel risk factor for hypertension? | journal=Am J Med Genet A | year= 2011 | volume= 155A | issue= 7 | pages= 1721-2 | pmid=21638762 | doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.34035 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21638762  }} </ref>
* Plasma reactive carbonyl species<ref name="pmid21323510">{{cite journal| author=Chen K, Xie F, Liu S, Li G, Chen Y, Shi W et al.| title=Plasma reactive carbonyl species: Potential risk factor for hypertension. | journal=Free Radic Res | year= 2011 | volume= 45 | issue= 5 | pages= 568-74 | pmid=21323510 | doi=10.3109/10715762.2011.557723 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21323510  }} </ref>
* Hyperuricemia<ref name="pmid22672087">{{cite journal| author=Feig DI| title=The role of uric acid in the pathogenesis of hypertension in the young. | journal=J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) | year= 2012 | volume= 14 | issue= 6 | pages= 346-52 | pmid=22672087 | doi=10.1111/j.1751-7176.2012.00662.x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22672087  }} </ref>
* [[Major depression]]<ref name="pmid19196807">{{cite journal| author=Patten SB, Williams JV, Lavorato DH, Campbell NR, Eliasziw M, Campbell TS| title=Major depression as a risk factor for high blood pressure: epidemiologic evidence from a national longitudinal study. | journal=Psychosom Med | year= 2009 | volume= 71 | issue= 3 | pages= 273-9 | pmid=19196807 | doi=10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181988e5f | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19196807  }} </ref>
==References==
==References==


Revision as of 21:54, 19 February 2013

Hypertension Main page

Overview

Causes

Classification

Primary Hypertension
Secondary Hypertension
Hypertensive Emergency
Hypertensive Urgency

Screening

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

Established risk factors for essential hypertension include African American ethnicity, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, increased alcohol intake, increased salt intake in diet, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle and lack of exercise.

Risk Factors


Emerging research is currently studying several new factors that might be contributory and pose risk for the development of essential hypertension, such as:

References

  1. ↑ Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D; et al. (2001). "Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group". N Engl J Med. 344 (1): 3–10. doi:10.1056/NEJM200101043440101. PMID 11136953.
  2. ↑ Wang NY, Young JH, Meoni LA, Ford DE, Erlinger TP, Klag MJ (2008). "Blood pressure change and risk of hypertension associated with parental hypertension: the Johns Hopkins Precursors Study". Arch Intern Med. 168 (6): 643–8. doi:10.1001/archinte.168.6.643. PMID 18362257.
  3. ↑ Gupta PC, Ray CS (2003). "Smokeless tobacco and health in India and South Asia". Respirology. 8 (4): 419–31. PMID 14708551.
  4. ↑ Marmot MG, Elliott P, Shipley MJ, Dyer AR, Ueshima H, Beevers DG; et al. (1994). "Alcohol and blood pressure: the INTERSALT study". BMJ. 308 (6939): 1263–7. PMC 2540174. PMID 7802765.
  5. ↑ de Simone G, Devereux RB, Chinali M, Roman MJ, Best LG, Welty TK; et al. (2006). "Risk factors for arterial hypertension in adults with initial optimal blood pressure: the Strong Heart Study". Hypertension. 47 (2): 162–7. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000199103.40105.b5. PMID 16380527.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Cuddy ML (2005). "Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1)". J Pract Nurs. 55 (4): 17–21, quiz 22-3. PMID 16512265.
  7. ↑ Forman JP, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2009). "Diet and lifestyle risk factors associated with incident hypertension in women". JAMA. 302 (4): 401–11. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1060. PMC 2803081. PMID 19622819.
  8. ↑ Sonne-Holm S, Sørensen TI, Jensen G, Schnohr P (1989). "Independent effects of weight change and attained body weight on prevalence of arterial hypertension in obese and non-obese men". BMJ. 299 (6702): 767–70. PMC 1837623. PMID 2508915.
  9. ↑ Pilz S, Tomaschitz A, Ritz E, Pieber TR (2009). "Vitamin D status and arterial hypertension: a systematic review". Nat Rev Cardiol. 6 (10): 621–30. doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2009.135. PMID 19687790.
  10. ↑ Hazari MA, Arifuddin MS, Muzzakar S, Reddy VD (2012). "Serum calcium level in hypertension". N Am J Med Sci. 4 (11): 569–72. doi:10.4103/1947-2714.103316. PMC 3503375. PMID 23181228.
  11. ↑ Park SE, Rhee EJ, Park CY, Oh KW, Park SW, Kim SW; et al. (2012). "Impact of hyperinsulinemia on the development of hypertension in normotensive, nondiabetic adults: a 4-year follow-up study". Metabolism. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2012.09.013. PMID 23122695.
  12. ↑ Norman M (2010). "Preterm birth--an emerging risk factor for adult hypertension?". Semin Perinatol. 34 (3): 183–7. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2010.02.009. PMID 20494733.
  13. ↑ Hornigold RE, Golding JF, Ferner RE, Ferner RE (2011). "Neurofibromatosis 2: a novel risk factor for hypertension?". Am J Med Genet A. 155A (7): 1721–2. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.34035. PMID 21638762.
  14. ↑ Chen K, Xie F, Liu S, Li G, Chen Y, Shi W; et al. (2011). "Plasma reactive carbonyl species: Potential risk factor for hypertension". Free Radic Res. 45 (5): 568–74. doi:10.3109/10715762.2011.557723. PMID 21323510.
  15. ↑ Feig DI (2012). "The role of uric acid in the pathogenesis of hypertension in the young". J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 14 (6): 346–52. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7176.2012.00662.x. PMID 22672087.
  16. ↑ Patten SB, Williams JV, Lavorato DH, Campbell NR, Eliasziw M, Campbell TS (2009). "Major depression as a risk factor for high blood pressure: epidemiologic evidence from a national longitudinal study". Psychosom Med. 71 (3): 273–9. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181988e5f. PMID 19196807.

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