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===Infectious Dose=== | ===Infectious Dose=== | ||
The infectious dose is the amount of agent that must be consumed to give rise to symptoms of foodborne illness, and varies according to the agent and the consumer's age and overall health. In the case of [[Salmonella]] a relatively large inoculum of 1 million to 1 billion organisms is necessary to produce symptoms in healthy human volunteers[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic515.htm], as Salmonellae are very sensitive to acid. An unusually high stomach pH level (low acidity) greatly reduces the number of bacteria required to cause symptoms by a factor of between 10 and 100. | The infectious dose is the amount of agent that must be consumed to give rise to symptoms of foodborne illness, and varies according to the agent and the consumer's age and overall health. In the case of [[Salmonella]] a relatively large inoculum of 1 million to 1 billion organisms is necessary to produce symptoms in healthy human volunteers[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic515.htm], as Salmonellae are very sensitive to acid. An unusually high stomach pH level (low acidity) greatly reduces the number of bacteria required to cause symptoms by a factor of between 10 and 100. | ||
===Exotoxins=== | |||
In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection, some foodborne illnesses are caused by [[exotoxin]]s which are [[excretion|excreted]] by the cell as the bacterium grows. Exotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptoms typically appear after 1–6 hours depending on the amount of toxin ingested. | |||
For example ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' produces a toxin that causes intense [[vomiting]]. The rare but potentially deadly disease [[botulism]] occurs when the [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] bacterium ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' grows in improperly canned low-acid foods and produces [[botulin]], a powerful paralytic toxin. | |||
Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis, certain species of [[Pseudomonas]] and [[Vibrio]], and some other bacteria, produce the lethal [[tetrodotoxin]], which is present in the [[tissue (biology)|tissue]]s of some living animal species rather than being a product of [[decomposition]]. | |||
=== Mycotoxins and Alimentary Mycotoxicoses === | |||
The term '''alimentary mycotoxicoses''' refers to the effect of poisoning by [[Mycotoxins]] through food consumption. [[Mycotoxins]] have prominently affected on human and animal health such as an outbreak which occurred in the UK in 1960 that caused the death of 100,000 turkeys which had consumed [[aflatoxin]]-contaminated peanut meal and the death of 5000 human lives by Alimentary toxic aleukia (ALA) in the USSR in World War II<ref name=fam>{{cite web | |||
| last = E. Mount | |||
| first = Michael | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Fungi and Mycotoxins <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 11 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/PHR250/2007/25007Myc.pdf}}</ref>. The common foodborne [[Mycotoxins]] include | |||
* [[Aflatoxins]] - originated from [[Aspergillus parasiticus]] and [[Aspergillus flavus]]. They are frequently found in tree nuts, peanuts, maize, sorghum and other oilseeds, including corn and cottonseeds. The pronounced forms of [[Aflatoxins]] are those of B1, B2, G1, and G2, amongst which Aflatoxin B1 predominantly targets the liver, which will result in [[necrosis]], [[cirrhosis]], and [[carcinoma]] <ref name=afltx>{{cite web | |||
| last = Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Aflatoxins <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap41.html}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=gtlmg>{{cite web | |||
| last = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = GASGA Technical Leaflet - 3 Mycotoxins in Grain <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/X5008E/X5008e01.htm}}</ref>. In the US, the acceptable level of total aflatoxins in foods is less than 20 μg/kg, except for Aflatoxin M1 in milk, which should be less than 0.5 μg/kg <ref name=cfh>{{cite web | |||
| last = World Health Organization | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Chapter 2 Foodborne Hazards in ''Basic Food Safety for Health Workers'' <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/publications/capacity/en/2.pdf}}</ref>. The official document can be found at [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]]'s website <ref name=sec683100>{{cite web | |||
| last = Food and Drug Administration | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Sec. 683.100 Action Levels for Aflatoxins in Animal Feeds (CPG 7126.33) <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/cpg/cpgvet/cpg683-100.html}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=mfcvmp>{{cite web | |||
| last = Henry | |||
| first = Michael H. | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Mycotoxins in Feeds: CVM’s Perspective <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.fda.gov/cvm/fdaaustintx823.htm}}</ref>. | |||
* Altertoxins - are those of [[Alternariol]] (AOH), [[Alternariol]] methyl ether (AME), Altenuene (ALT), Altertoxin-1 (ATX-1), Tenuazonic acid (TeA) and Radicinin (RAD), originated from [[Alternaria]] spp. Some of the toxins can be present in sorghum, [[Finger millet|ragi]], wheat and tomatoes <ref name=atwdw>{{cite web | |||
| last = Webley | |||
| first = D. J. ''et al.'' | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Alternaria toxins in weather-damaged wheat and sorghum in the 1995-1996 Australian harvest <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/A97005.htm}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=amwwc>{{cite web | |||
| last = Li | |||
| first = Feng-qin | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = Takumi Yoshizawa | |||
| title = Alternaria Mycotoxins in Weathered Wheat from China <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/jafcau/2000/48/i07/abs/jf0000171.html}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=sbtp>{{cite web | |||
| last = da Motta | |||
| first = Silvana | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = Lucia M. Valente Soares | |||
| title = Survey of Brazilian tomato products for alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, tenuazonic acid and cyclopiazonic acid <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713810863~db=all}}</ref>. Some research has shown that the toxins can be easily cross-contaminated between grain commodities, suggesting that manufacturing and storage of grain commodities is a critical practice <ref name=pamaa>{{cite web | |||
| last = Li | |||
| first = F. Q. ''et al.'' | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Production of Alternaria Mycotoxins by Alternaria alternata Isolated from Weather-Damaged Wheat <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iafp/jfp/2001/00000064/00000004/art00025}}</ref>. | |||
* [[Fumonisins]] - Crop corn can be easily contaminated by the fungi [[Fusarium moniliforme]], and its [[Fumonisin B1]] will cause Leukoencephalomalacia (LEM) in horses, [[Pulmonary edema syndrome]] (PES) in pigs, liver cancer in rats and [[Esophageal cancer]] in humans <ref name=ftihah>{{cite web | |||
| last = Marasas | |||
| first = Walter F. O. | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Fumonisins: Their implications for human and animal health <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112640083/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=off>{{cite web | |||
| last = Soriano | |||
| first = J.M. | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = S. Dragacci | |||
| title = Occurrence of fumonisins in foods <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6V-4D636PW-1&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4a033a232e75e4ebf3ee269c06744491}}</ref>. For human and animal health, both the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] and the EC have regulated the content levels of toxins in food and animal feed <ref name=CVMF>{{cite web | |||
| last = Food and Drug Administration | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = CVM and Fumonisins <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.fda.gov/cvm/fumonisin.htm}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=mcmmp>{{cite web | |||
| last = Food Standards Agency | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = More contaminated maize meal products withdrawn from sale <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2003/sep/moremaize}}</ref>. | |||
* [[Fumonisins]] - Crop corn can be easily contaminated by the fungi [[Fusarium moniliforme]], and its [[Fumonisin B1]] will cause Leukoencephalomalacia (LEM) in horses, [[Pulmonary edema syndrome]] (PES) in pigs, liver cancer in rats and [[Esophageal cancer]] in humans <ref name=ftihah>{{cite web | |||
| last = Marasas | |||
| first = Walter F. O. | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = Fumonisins: Their implications for human and animal health <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112640083/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=off>{{cite web | |||
| last = Soriano | |||
| first = J.M. | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = S. Dragacci | |||
| title = Occurrence of fumonisins in foods <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6V-4D636PW-1&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4a033a232e75e4ebf3ee269c06744491}}</ref>. For human and animal health, both the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] and the EC have regulated the content levels of toxins in food and animal feed <ref name=CVMF>{{cite web | |||
| last = Food and Drug Administration | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = CVM and Fumonisins <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 13 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.fda.gov/cvm/fumonisin.htm}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=mcmmp>{{cite web | |||
| last = Food Standards Agency | |||
| first = | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| coauthors = | |||
| title = More contaminated maize meal products withdrawn from sale <internet> | |||
| publisher = | |||
| accessdaymonth = 12 August | |||
| accessyear = 2007 | |||
| url = http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2003/sep/moremaize}}</ref>. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 15:27, 27 February 2013
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
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Pathophysiology
Incubation Period
The delay between consumption of a contaminated food and appearance of the first symptoms of illness is called the incubation period. This ranges from hours to days (and rarely months or even years, such as in the case of Listeriosis or Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease), depending on the agent, and on how much was consumed. If symptoms occur within 1–6 hours after eating the food, it suggests that it is caused by a bacterial toxin or a chemical rather than live bacteria.
During the incubation period, microbes pass through the stomach into the intestine, attach to the cells lining the intestinal walls, and begin to multiply there. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, and some can directly invade the deeper body tissues. The symptoms produced depend on the type of microbe. [2]
Infectious Dose
The infectious dose is the amount of agent that must be consumed to give rise to symptoms of foodborne illness, and varies according to the agent and the consumer's age and overall health. In the case of Salmonella a relatively large inoculum of 1 million to 1 billion organisms is necessary to produce symptoms in healthy human volunteers[3], as Salmonellae are very sensitive to acid. An unusually high stomach pH level (low acidity) greatly reduces the number of bacteria required to cause symptoms by a factor of between 10 and 100.
Exotoxins
In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection, some foodborne illnesses are caused by exotoxins which are excreted by the cell as the bacterium grows. Exotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptoms typically appear after 1–6 hours depending on the amount of toxin ingested.
For example Staphylococcus aureus produces a toxin that causes intense vomiting. The rare but potentially deadly disease botulism occurs when the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum grows in improperly canned low-acid foods and produces botulin, a powerful paralytic toxin.
Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis, certain species of Pseudomonas and Vibrio, and some other bacteria, produce the lethal tetrodotoxin, which is present in the tissues of some living animal species rather than being a product of decomposition.
Mycotoxins and Alimentary Mycotoxicoses
The term alimentary mycotoxicoses refers to the effect of poisoning by Mycotoxins through food consumption. Mycotoxins have prominently affected on human and animal health such as an outbreak which occurred in the UK in 1960 that caused the death of 100,000 turkeys which had consumed aflatoxin-contaminated peanut meal and the death of 5000 human lives by Alimentary toxic aleukia (ALA) in the USSR in World War II[1]. The common foodborne Mycotoxins include
- Aflatoxins - originated from Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus. They are frequently found in tree nuts, peanuts, maize, sorghum and other oilseeds, including corn and cottonseeds. The pronounced forms of Aflatoxins are those of B1, B2, G1, and G2, amongst which Aflatoxin B1 predominantly targets the liver, which will result in necrosis, cirrhosis, and carcinoma [2], [3]. In the US, the acceptable level of total aflatoxins in foods is less than 20 μg/kg, except for Aflatoxin M1 in milk, which should be less than 0.5 μg/kg [4]. The official document can be found at FDA's website [5], [6].
- Altertoxins - are those of Alternariol (AOH), Alternariol methyl ether (AME), Altenuene (ALT), Altertoxin-1 (ATX-1), Tenuazonic acid (TeA) and Radicinin (RAD), originated from Alternaria spp. Some of the toxins can be present in sorghum, ragi, wheat and tomatoes [7], [8], [9]. Some research has shown that the toxins can be easily cross-contaminated between grain commodities, suggesting that manufacturing and storage of grain commodities is a critical practice [10].
- Fumonisins - Crop corn can be easily contaminated by the fungi Fusarium moniliforme, and its Fumonisin B1 will cause Leukoencephalomalacia (LEM) in horses, Pulmonary edema syndrome (PES) in pigs, liver cancer in rats and Esophageal cancer in humans [11], [12]. For human and animal health, both the FDA and the EC have regulated the content levels of toxins in food and animal feed [13], [14].
- Fumonisins - Crop corn can be easily contaminated by the fungi Fusarium moniliforme, and its Fumonisin B1 will cause Leukoencephalomalacia (LEM) in horses, Pulmonary edema syndrome (PES) in pigs, liver cancer in rats and Esophageal cancer in humans [11], [12]. For human and animal health, both the FDA and the EC have regulated the content levels of toxins in food and animal feed [13], [14].
References
- ↑ E. Mount, Michael. "Fungi and Mycotoxins <internet>" (PDF). Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition. "Aflatoxins <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "GASGA Technical Leaflet - 3 Mycotoxins in Grain <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ World Health Organization. "Chapter 2 Foodborne Hazards in Basic Food Safety for Health Workers <internet>" (PDF). Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Food and Drug Administration. "Sec. 683.100 Action Levels for Aflatoxins in Animal Feeds (CPG 7126.33) <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Henry, Michael H. "Mycotoxins in Feeds: CVM's Perspective <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Webley, D. J.; et al. "Alternaria toxins in weather-damaged wheat and sorghum in the 1995-1996 Australian harvest <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Li, Feng-qin. "Alternaria Mycotoxins in Weathered Wheat from China <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ da Motta, Silvana. "Survey of Brazilian tomato products for alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, tenuazonic acid and cyclopiazonic acid <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Li, F. Q.; et al. "Production of Alternaria Mycotoxins by Alternaria alternata Isolated from Weather-Damaged Wheat <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ 11.0 11.1 Marasas, Walter F. O. "Fumonisins: Their implications for human and animal health <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ 12.0 12.1 Soriano, J.M. "Occurrence of fumonisins in foods <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ 13.0 13.1 Food and Drug Administration. "CVM and Fumonisins <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ↑ 14.0 14.1 Food Standards Agency. "More contaminated maize meal products withdrawn from sale <internet>". Unknown parameter
|accessdaymonth=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)