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| __NOTOC__
| | #REDIRECT [[Diltiazem#Pharmacology]] |
| {{Diltiazem}}
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| {{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{AK}}
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| ==CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY==
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| The therapeutic effects of diltiazem are believed to be related to its ability to inhibit the cellular influx of calcium ions during membrane depolarization of cardiac and vascular smooth muscle.
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| ===Mechanisms of Action===
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| '''Hypertension.''' Diltiazem produces its antihypertensive effect primarily by relaxation of vascular smooth muscle and the resultant decrease in peripheral vascular resistance. The magnitude of blood pressure reduction is related to the degree of hypertension; thus hypertensive individuals experience an [[antihypertensive ]]effect, whereas there is only a modest fall in blood pressure in normotensives.
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| '''Angina.''' Diltiazem has been shown to produce increases in exercise tolerance, probably due to its ability to reduce myocardial oxygen demand. This is accomplished via reductions in heart rate and systemic blood pressure at submaximal and maximal work loads. Diltiazem has been shown to be a potent dilator of coronary arteries, both [[epicardial ]]and [[subendocardial]]. Spontaneous and [[ergonovine]]-induced coronary artery spasm are inhibited by diltiazem.
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| In animal models, diltiazem interferes with the slow inward (depolarizing) current in excitable tissue. It causes excitation-contraction uncoupling in various myocardial tissues without changes in the configuration of the action potential. Diltiazem produces relaxation of coronary vascular smooth muscle and dilation of both large and small coronary arteries at drug levels which cause little or no negative [[inotropic ]]effect. The resultant increases in coronary blood flow ([[epicardial ]]and [[subendocardial]]) occur in ischemic and nonischemic models and are accompanied by dose-dependent decreases in systemic blood pressure and decreases in peripheral resistance.
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| ===Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism===
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| Diltiazem is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is subject to an extensive first-pass effect, giving an absolute [[bioavailability ]](compared to intravenous administration) of about 40%. Diltiazem undergoes extensive metabolism in which only 2% to 4% of the unchanged drug appears in the urine. Drugs which induce or inhibit hepatic microsomal enzymes may alter diltiazem disposition.
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| Total radioactivity measurement following short IV administration in healthy volunteers suggests the presence of other unidentified metabolites, which attain higher concentrations than those of diltiazem and are more slowly eliminated; half-life of total radioactivity is about 20 hours compared to 2 to 5 hours for diltiazem.
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| In vitro binding studies show diltiazem is 70% to 80% bound to plasma proteins. Competitive in vitro ligand binding studies have also shown diltiazem hydrochloride binding is not altered by therapeutic concentrations of [[digoxin]], [[hydrochlorothiazide]], [[phenylbutazone]], [[propranolol]], [[salicylic acid]], or [[warfarin]]. The plasma elimination half-life following single or multiple drug administration is approximately 3.0 to 4.5 hours. Desacetyl diltiazem is also present in the plasma at levels of 10% to 20% of the parent drug and is 25% to 50% as potent as a coronary vasodilator as diltiazem. Minimum therapeutic plasma diltiazem concentrations appear to be in the range of 50 to 200 ng/mL. There is a departure from linearity when dose strengths are increased; the half-life is slightly increased with dose. A study that compared patients with normal hepatic function to patients with cirrhosis found an increase in half-life and a 69% increase in [[bioavailability ]]in the hepatically impaired patients. A single study in nine patients with severely impaired renal function showed no difference in the pharmacokinetic profile of diltiazem compared to patients with normal renal function.
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| '''CARDIZEM LA Tablets.''' A single 360 mg dose of CARDIZEM LA results in detectable plasma levels within 3 to 4 hours and peak plasma levels between 11 and 18 hours; absorption occurs throughout the dosing interval. The apparent elimination half-life for CARDIZEM LA Tablets after single or multiple dosing is 6 to 9 hours. When CARDIZEM LA Tablets were coadministered with a high fat content breakfast, diltiazem peak and systemic exposures were not affected indicating that the tablet can be administered without regard to food. As the dose of CARDIZEM LA Tablets is increased from 120 to 240 mg, area-under-the-curve increases 2.5-fold.
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| ===Pharmacodynamics and Clinical Studies===
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| Like other calcium channel antagonists, diltiazem decreases [[sinoatrial ]]and [[atrioventricular ]]conduction in isolated tissues and has a negative [[inotropic ]]effect in isolated preparations. In the intact animal, prolongation of the AH interval can be seen at higher doses.
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| In man, diltiazem prevents spontaneous and [[ergonovine]]-provoked coronary artery spasm. It causes a decrease in peripheral vascular resistance and a modest fall in blood pressure in normotensive individuals and, in exercise tolerance studies in patients with ischemic heart disease, reduces the heart rate-blood pressure product for any given work load. Studies to date, primarily in patients with good ventricular function, have not revealed evidence of a negative [[inotropic ]]effect; [[cardiac output]], [[ejection fraction]], and [[left ventricular end diastolic pressure ]]have not been affected. Such data has no predictive value with respect to effects in patients with poor ventricular function, and increased heart failure has been reported in patients with preexisting impairment of ventricular function. There are as yet few data on the interaction of diltiazem and [[beta-blockers ]]in patients with poor ventricular function. Resting heart rate is usually slightly reduced by diltiazem. Diltiazem decreases vascular resistance, increases cardiac output (by increasing [[stroke volume]]), and produces a slight decrease or no change in heart rate.
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| During dynamic exercise, increases in[[ diastolic pressure]] are inhibited, while maximum achievable systolic pressure is usually reduced. Chronic therapy with diltiazem produces no change or an increase in plasma [[catecholamines]]. No increased activity of the [[Renin-angiotensin|renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis]] has been observed. Diltiazem reduces the renal and peripheral effects of [[angiotensin II]]. Hypertensive animal models respond to diltiazem with reductions in blood pressure and increased urinary output and [[natriuresis ]]without a change in urinary sodium/potassium ratio.
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| Intravenous diltiazem hydrochloride in doses of 20 mg prolongs AH conduction time and [[AV node]] functional and effective refractory periods by approximately 20%. In a study involving single oral doses of 300 mg of diltiazem hydrochloride in six normal volunteers, the average maximum PR prolongation was 14% with no instances of greater than first-degree AV block. Diltiazem associated prolongation of the AH interval is not more pronounced in patients with first-degree heart block. In patients with sick sinus syndrome, diltiazem significantly prolongs sinus cycle length (up to 50% in some cases).
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| Chronic oral administration of diltiazem hydrochloride to patients in doses of up to 540 mg/day has resulted in small increases in [[PR interval]], and on occasion produces abnormal prolongation (see WARNINGS).
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| '''Hypertension'''. In a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, dose-response study involving 478 patients with [[essential hypertension]], evening doses of CARDIZEM LA 120, 240, 360, and 540 mg were compared to placebo and to 360 mg administered in the morning. The mean reductions in diastolic blood pressure by ABPM at roughly 24 hours after the morning (4 AM to 8AM) or evening (6 PM to 10 PM) administration (i.e., the time corresponding to expected trough serum concentrations) are shown in the table below:
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| [[image:cardizemla1.png]]
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| A second randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, dose-response study (N=258) evaluated CARDIZEM LA following morning doses of placebo or 120, 180, 300, or 540 mg. [[Diastolic blood pressure]] measured by supine office cuff [[sphygmomanometer ]]at trough (7 AM to 9 AM) decreased in an apparently linear manner over the dosage range studied. Group mean changes for placebo, 120 mg, 180 mg, 300 mg and 540 mg were -2.6, -1.9, -5.4, -6.1, and -8.6 mm Hg, respectively.
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| Whether the time of administration impacts the clinical benefits of [[antihypertensive ]]treatment is not known.
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| [[Postural hypotension]] is infrequently noted upon suddenly assuming an upright position. No [[reflex tachycardia]] is associated with the chronic [[antihypertensive ]]effects.
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| '''Angina.''' The effects of Cardizem LA on angina were evaluated in a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, dose-response trial of 311 patients with chronic stable angina. Evening doses of 180, 360, and 420 mg were compared to placebo and to 360 mg administered in the morning. All doses of Cardizem LA administered at night increased exercise tolerance when compared with placebo after 21 hours. The mean effect, placebo-subtracted, was 20 to 28 seconds for all three doses, and no dose-response was demonstrated. Cardizem LA, 360 mg, given in the morning, also improved exercise tolerance when measured 25 hours later. As expected, the effect was smaller than the effects measured only 21 hours following nighttime administration. Cardizem LA had a larger effect to increase exercise tolerance at peak serum concentrations than at trough.<ref name="dailymed.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite web | last = | first = | title = CARDIZEM LA (DILTIAZEM HYDROCHLORIDE) TABLET, EXTENDED RELEASE [ABBVIE INC.] | url = http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=b4626a8d-a28d-4937-aa61-b9d958ae336c | publisher = | date = | accessdate = 5 March 2014 }}</ref>
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| [[Category:Cardiovascular Drugs]]
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| [[Category:Drugs]]
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