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WikiDoc Infectious Disease Project — Pathogen-Based Infections

Pathogens of Public Health Significance

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Pathogens of Clinical Significance

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Bacteria – Gram-Positive Cocci

  • 1. Infectious endocarditis
  • 1.1 In adults
  • 2. Intravascular catheter-related infections[1]
  • 2.1 Methicillin susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 2.1.1.1.1 Neonates
  • 0–4 weeks of age and 1200 g- 50 mg/kg/day q12h.
  • ≤7 days and 1200–2000 g- 50 mg/kg/day q12h.
  • >7 days of age and <2000g- 75 mg/kg/day q8h.
  • >7 days of age and >1200 g - 100 mg/kg/day q6h.
  • 2.1.1.1.2 Infants and children: Nafcillin 100–200 mg/kg/day q4–6h.
  • 2.1.1.2.1 Neonates
  • 0–4 weeks of age and 1200 g - 50 mg/kg/day q12h.
  • Postnatal age <7 days and 1200–2000 g- 50–100 mg/kg/day q12h.
  • Postnatal age <7 days and >2000 g, 75–150 mg/kg/day q8h.
  • Postnatal age ≥7 days and 1200–2000 g- 75–150 mg/kg/day q8h.
  • Postnatal age ≥7 days and >2000 g, 100–200 mg/kg/day q6h.
  • 2.1.1.3.1 Neonates
  • Postnatal age ≤7 days: 40 mg/kg/day q12h.
  • Postnatal age >7 days and 2000 g: 40 mg/kg/day q12h.
  • Postnatal age >7 days and 12000 g: 60 mg/kg/day q8h.
  • 2.1.1.3.2 Infants and children: 50 mg/kg/day q8h.
  • 2.1.1.4.1 Neonates
  • Postnatal age ≤7 days and <1200 g, 15 mg/kg/day q24h.
  • Postnatal age ≤7 days and 1200–2000 g, 10–15 mg/kg q12–18h.
  • Postnatal age ≤7 days and >2000 g, 10–15 mg/kg q8–12h.
  • Postnatal age >7 days and <1200 g, 15 mg/kg/day q24h.
  • Postnatal age >7 days and 1200–2000 g, 10–15 mg/kg q8–12h.
  • Postnatal age >7 days and >2000 g, 15–20 mg/kg q8h.
  • 2.1.1.4.2 Infants and children: 40 mg/kg/day q6–8h.
  • 2.2 Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • 2.2.1.1.1 Neonates
  • 0–4 weeks of age and birthweight <1200 g: 10 mg/kg q8–12h (note: q12h in patients <34 weeks gestation and <1 week of age).
  • <7 days of age and birthweight >1200 g, 10 mg/kg q8–12h (note: q12h in patients <34 weeks gestation and <1 week of age).
  • 7 days and birthweight >1200 g, 10 mg/kg q8h.
  • 2.2.1.1.2 Infants and children <12 years of age: 10 mg/kg q8h Children 12 years of age and adolescents: 10 mg/kg q12h.
  • 2.2.1.2.1 Neonates
  • Premature neonates and <1000 g, 3.5 mg/kg q24h; 0–4 weeks and <1200 g, 2.5 mg/kg q18-24h.
  • Postnatal age 7 days: 2.5 mg/kg q12h.
  • Postnatal age 17 days and 1200–2000 g, 2.5 mg/kg q8-12h.
  • Postnatal age 17 days and 12000 g, 2.5 mg/kg q8h.
  • Once daily dosing for premature neonates with normal renal function, 3.5–4 mg/kg q24h.
  • Once daily dosing for term neonates with normal renal function, 3.5–5 mg/kg q24h.
  • 2.2.1.2.2 Infants and children <5 years of age: 2.5 mg/kg q8h; qd dosing in patients with normal renal function, 5–7.5 mg/kg q24h.
  • 2.2.1.2.3 Children >5 years of age: 2–2.5 mg/kg q8h; qd s with normal renal function, 5–7.5 mg/kg every 24 h.
  • 2.2.1.3.1 Infants 12 months of age and children: mild-to-moderate infections, 6–12 mg TMP/kg/day q12h; serious infection, 15–20 mg TMP/kg/day q6-8h.
  • 3. Cellulitis
3.1 Purulent cellulitis (defined as cellulitis associated with purulent drainage or exudate in the absence of a drainable abscess)
  • 3.1.1 In adults
  • 3.1.2 In childern
Doxycycline If patient body weight 45kg: adult dose OR Minocycline 4 mg/kg PO 200 mg as a single dose, then 2 mg/kg/dose PO q12h OR Linezolid 10 mg/kg PO q8h, not to exceed 600 mg/dose
  • 3.2 Nonpurulent cellulitis (defined as cellulitis with no purulent drainage or exudate and no associated abscess)
  • 3.2.1 In adults
Note: Empirical therapy for b-hemolytic streptococci is recommended. Empirical coverage for CA-MRSA is recommended in patients who do not respond to b-lactam therapy and may be considered in those with systemic toxicity.
Note: Provide coverage for both b-hemolytic streptococci and CA-MRSA b-lactam (eg, amoxicillin) and/or TMP-SMX or a tetracycline
  • 3.2.2 In childern
Note (1): Clindamycin causes Clostridium difficile–associated disease may occur more frequently, compared with other oral agents.
Note (2): Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole not recommended for women in the third trimester of pregnancy and for children ,2 months of age.
Note (3): Tetracyclines are not recommended for children under 8 years of age and are pregnancy category D.
  • 4.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • 4.1.1 In adults
  • 4.1.2 In childern
Note: Consider the addition of Rifampin 600 mg qd OR 300–450 mg bid to Vancomycin.
  • 4.2 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 5. Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection [5][6]
  • 5.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 30–45 mg/kg/day IV q8–12h AND/OR Rifampin 600 mg IV or PO q24h
Note: Shunt removal is recommended, and it should not be replaced until cerebrospinal fluid cultures are repeatedly negative.
  • 5.2 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 6.1 Penicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus
  • Preferred regimen: Penicillin G 4 MU IV q4h for 2–4 weeks, then PO to complete 6–8 weeks
  • 6.2 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus
  • Preferred regimen: Cefazolin 2 g IV q8h for 2–4 weeks, then PO to complete 6–8 weeks OR Nafcillin 2 g IV q4h for 2–4 weeks, then PO to complete 6–8 weeks OR Oxacillin 2 g IV q4h for 2–4 weeks, then PO to complete 6–8 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: Clindamycin 600 mg IV q6h for 2–4 weeks, then PO to complete 6–8 weeks
  • 6.3 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • 6.3.1 In adults
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin loading dose 25–30 mg/kg IV followed by 15–20 mg/kg IV q8–12h for 2–4 weeks, then PO to complete 6–8 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: Linezolid 600 mg PO or IV q12h for 4–6 weeks OR TMP-SMX 5 mg/kg PO or IV q8–12h for 4–6 weeks
  • 6.3.2 Pediatric dose
Note: Consider the addition of Rifampin 600 mg qd or 300–450 mg bid to Vancomycin in adult patients.
  • 7. Bacterial meningitis
  • 7.1 Methicillin susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 7.2 Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Note: Consider the addition of Rifampin 600 mg qd or 300–450 mg bid to Vancomycin in adult patients.
  • 8. Septic thrombosis of cavernous or dural venous sinus[11]
  • 8.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • 8.1.1 In adults
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 15–20 mg/kg IV q8–12h for 4–6 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: Linezolid 600 mg PO IV q12h for 4–6 weeks OR TMP-SMX 5 mg/kg/dose PO/IV q8–12h for 4–6 weeks
  • 8.1.2 Pediatric dose
Note (1): Surgical evaluation for incision and drainage of contiguous sites of infection or abscess is recommended whenever possible.
Note (2): Consider the addition of Rifampin 600 mg qd or 300–450 mg bid to Vancomycin.
  • 9. Subdural empyema
  • 9.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)[12]
  • 9.1.1 In adults
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 30–45 mg/kg/day IV q8–12h for 4–6 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: Linezolid 600 mg PO or IV q12h for 4–6 weeks OR TMP-SMX 5 mg/kg/dose PO/IV q8–12h for 4–6 weeks
  • 9.1.2 In childern
Note: Consider the addition of Rifampin 600 mg qd or 300–450 mg bid to Vancomycin.
  • 10. Acute conjunctivitis [13]
  • 10.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • 11. Appendicitis
11.1 Health Care–Associated Complicated Intra-abdominal Infection [14]
11.1.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 15–20 mg/kg IV q8–12h
  • 12. Diverticulitis
12.1 Health Care–Associated Complicated Intra-abdominal Infection [14]
12.1.1Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 15–20 mg/kg IV q8–12h.
  • 13. Peritonitis secondary to bowel perforation, peritonitis secondary to ruptured appendix, peritonitis secondary to ruptured appendix, typhlitis
13.1 Health Care–Associated Complicated Intra-abdominal Infection [14]
  • 13.1.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 15–20 mg/kg IV q8–12h
  • 14. Cystic fibrosis [15]
  • 14.1 Preferred Regimen (Adult)
  • If methicillin sensitive staphylococcus aureus: Nafcillin 2 gm IV q4hs OR Oxacillin 2 gm IV q4hs
  • If methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus: Vancomycin 15-20 mg/kg IV q8-12h OR Linezolid 600 mg po/IV q12h
  • 14.2 Preferred regimen (Pediatric)
  • If methicillin sensitive staphylococcus aureus: Nafcillin 5 mg/kg q6h (Age >28 days) OR Oxacillin 75 mg/kg q6h (Age >28 days)]]
  • If methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus: Vancomycin 40 mg/kg q6-8h (Age >28 days) OR Linezolid 10 mg/kg po or IV q8h (up to age 12)
  • 15. Bronchiectasis [16]
  • 15.1 Preferred Regimen in adults
  • 15.1.1 Recommended first-line treatment and length of treatment
15.1.1.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA): Flucloxacillin 500 mg oral qds for 14 days
15.1.1.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Patient's body weight is <50 kg: Rifampicin 450 mg oral od AND Trimethoprim 200 mg oral bd for 14 days ; Patient's body weight is >50 kg: Rifampicin 600 mg oral od AND Trimethoprim 200 mg oral bd for 14 days
15.1.1.3 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Vancomycin 1 g IV bd (monitor serum levels and adjust dose accordingly) OR Teicoplanin 400 mg od for 14 days
  • 15.1.2 Recommended second-line treatment and length of treatment
15.1.2.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA): Clarithromycin 500 mg oral bd 14 days
15.1.2.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Patient's body weight is <50 kg: Rifampicin 450 mg oral od AND Doxycycline 200 mg oral od 14 days, Patient's body weight is >50 kg: Rifampicin 600 mg oral AND Doxycycline 200 mg oral od 14 days. Third-line: Linezolid 600 mg bd 14 days
15.1.2.3 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Linezolid 600 mg IV bd 14 days
  • 15.2 Preferred Regimen in children
  • 15.2.1 Recommended first-line treatment and length of treatment
15.2.1.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA): Flucloxacillin
15.2.1.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Children (< 12 yr): Trimethoprim 4-6 mg/kg/24 hr divided q 12 hr PO Children (> 12 yr) : Trimethoprim 100-200 mg q 12 hr PO. Rifampicin 450 mg oral od  : Rifampicin 600 mg oral od AND
15.2.1.3 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Vancomycin 45-60 mg/kg/24 hr divided q 8-12 hr IV OR Teicoplanin
  • 15.2.2 Recommended second-line treatment and length of treatment
15.2.2.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA): Clarithromycin 15 mg/kg/24 hr divided q 12 hr PO
15.2.2.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Rifampicin AND Doxycycline 2-5 mg/kg/24 hr divided q 12-24 hr PO or IV (max dose: 200 mg/24 hr) ; Rifampicin AND Doxycycline 2-5 mg/kg/24 hr divided q 12-24 hr PO or IV (max dose: 200 mg/24 hr) . Third-line: Linezolid 10 mg/kg q 12 hr IV or PO
15.2.2.3 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Linezolid 10 mg/kg q 12 hr IV or PO
  • 15.3 Long-term oral antibiotic treatment
  • 15.3.1 Preferred Regimen in adults
  • 15.3.1.1 Recommended first-line treatment and length of treatment
15.3.1.1.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA): Flucloxacillin 500 mg oral bd
  • 15.3.1.2 Recommended second-line treatment and length of treatment
15.3.1.2.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA): Clarithromycin 250 mg oral bd
  • 17. Community-acquired pneumonia[18]
  • 17.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 17.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • Preferred Regimen : Vancomycin 45-60 mg/kg/day divided q8-12h (max: 2000 mg/dose) for 7-21 days OR Linezolid 600 mg PO/IV q12h for 10-14 days
  • Alternative Regimen: Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole 1-2 double-strength tablets (800/160 mg) q12-24h
  • 18. Olecranon bursitis or prepatellar bursitis
  • 18.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 18.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Note: Initially aspirate q24h and treat for a minimum of 2–3 weeks.
  • 19. Septic arthritis
  • 19.1 In adults
  • 19.1.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 15–20 mg/kg IV q8–12h
  • Alternative regimen (1): Daptomycin 6 mg/kg IV q24h in adults
  • Alternative regimen (2): Linezolid 600 mg PO/IV q12h
  • Alternative regimen (3): Clindamycin 600 mg PO/IV q8h
  • Alternative regimen (4): TMP-SMX 3.5–4.0 mg/kg PO/IV q8–12h
  • 19.2 In childern
  • 19.2.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 20. Septic arthritis, prosthetic joint infection (device-related osteoarticular infections)
  • 20.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 20.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • Early-onset (< 2 months after surgery) or acute hematogenous prosthetic joint infections involving a stable implant with short duration (< 3 weeks) of symptoms and debridement (but device retention)
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin AND Rifampin 600 mg PO qd or 300–450 mg PO bid for 2 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: (Daptomycin 6 mg/kg IV q24h OR Linezolid 600 IV q8h) AND Rifampin 600 mg PO qd or 300–450 mg PO bid for 2 weeks
Note: The above regimen should be followed by Rifampin plus a fluoroquinolone, TMP/SMX, a tetracycline or Clindamycin for 3 or 6 months for hips and knees, respectively.
  • 21. Hematogenous osteomyelitis
  • 21.1 Adult (>21 yrs)
  • 21.1.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) possible
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 1 gm IV q12h (if over 100 kg, 1.5 gm IV q12h)
  • 21.1.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) unlikely
  • 21.2 Children (>4 mos.)-Adult
  • 21.2.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) possible
  • 21.2.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) unlikely
Note: Add Ceftazidime 50 q8h or Cefepime 150 div q8h if Gm-neg. bacilli on Gram stain
  • 21.3 Newborn (<4 mos.)
  • 21.3.1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) possible
  • 21.3.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) unlikely
  • 21.4 Specific therapy
  • 21.4.1 Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • 21.4.2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • 22. Diabetic foot osteomyelitis
  • High Risk for MRSA
  • 23. Necrotizing fasciitis[19]
  • 23.1 In adult
  • 23.2 In childern
  • 24. Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome [20]
  • 24.1 Methicillin sensitive Staphylococcus aureus
  • Preferred regimen: Cloxacillin 250-500 mg PO q6h (max dose: 4 g/24 hr) OR Nafcillin 4-12 g/24 hr divided IV q4-6hr (max dose: 12 g/24 hr) OR Cefazolin 0.5-2g IV or IM q8h (max dose: 12 g/24 hr), AND Clindamycin 150-600 mg IV, IM, or PO q6-8h (max dose: 5 g/24 hr IV or IM or 2 g/24 hr PO)
  • Alternative regimen (1):Clarithromycin 250-500 mg PO q12h (max dose: 1 g/24 hr) AND Clindamycin 150-600 mg IV, IM, or PO q6-8h (max dose: 5 g/24 hr IV or IM or 2 g/24 hr PO)
  • Alternative regimen (1):Rifampicin, AND Linezolid 600 mg IV or PO q12h OR Daptomycin OR Tigecycline 100 mg loading dose followed by 50 mg IV q12h
  • 24.2 Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus
  • 24.3 Glycopeptide resistant or intermediate Staphylococcus aureus
  • Preferred regimen: Linezolid 600 mg IV or PO q12h AND Clindamycin 150-600 mg IV, IM, or PO q6-8h (max dose: 5 g/24 hr IV or IM or 2 g/24 hr PO) (if sensitive)
  • Alternative regimen (1):Daptomycin OR Tigecycline 100 mg loading dose followed by 50 mg IV q12h
Note: Incidence increasing. Geographical patterns highly variable.
  • Staphylococcus aureus ,prophylaxis
  • 1. Prophylaxis for coronary artery bypass graft-associated acute mediastinitis[21]
  • 1.1 Methicillin susceptible staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
  • Preferred regimen: A first- or second-generation Cephalosporin is recommended for prophylaxis in patients without methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization.
  • 1.2 Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin alone or in combination with other antibiotics to achieve broader coverage is recommended for prophylaxis in patients with proven or suspected methicillin-resistant S. aureus colonization
Note (1): Preoperative antibiotics should be administered to all patients to reduce the risk of mediastinitis in cardiac surgery.
Note (2): The use of intranasal Mupirocin is reasonable in nasal carriers of Staphylococcus aureus.
  • 1. Bacteremia: most often due to IV lines, vascular grafts, cardiac valves (30-40% of all coagulase-negative staphylococcus infections)
Note: Site sepcific recommendation for peripheral line is to remove line, antibiotics for 5-7 days and for central line may often keep line and systemic antibiotics for 2 wks with antibiotics lock.
  • 2. CSF shunt: meningitis
Note: Shunt removal usually recommended but variable. Vancomycin 22.5 mg/kg IV q12h and rifampin PO/IV and possible intraventricular antibiotics: Vancomycin 20 mg/day with or without Gentamicin 4-8 mg/day is recommended.
  • 3. Peritoneal dialysis catheter: peritonitis
Note: Site sepcific recommendation is to keep dialysis catheter (at least for first effort) and IV Vancomycin (usually 2 g IV/wk and redose when level <15 mcg/mL) with antibiotics lock for 10-14 days.
  • 4. Prosthetic joint: septic arthritis
Note: Site sepcific recommendation is typically remove joint (two stage more common than single stage replacement), antibiotics for 6 wks. If very early infection (less than 3 wks post-op, debridement and retention an option).
  • 5. Prosthetic or natural cardiac valve: endocarditis
Note: Site sepcific recommendation is consider valve replacement and antibiotics for 6 wks.
  • 6. Post-sternotomy: osteomyelitis
  • 7. Implants (breast, penile, pacemaker) and other prosthetic devices: local infection
Note: Site sepcific recommendation for vascular graft is to remove graft, antibiotics for 6 wks.
  • 8. Post-ocular surgery: endophthalmitis
  • 9. Surgical site infections
Note: only assume Methicillin susceptible if multiple isolates are so identified.
Note (1): Mastitis with no abscess- increase frequency of nursing may hasten response.
Note (2): Mastitis with abscess- needle aspiration reported successful. Resume breast feeding from affected breast as soon as pain allows.
  • 2. Non-puerperal mastitis with abscess
Note (1): If subareolar & odoriferous, most likely anaerobes; need to add Metronidazole 500 mg IV/po tid.
Note (2): If not subareolar, staph. Need pretreatment aerobic/anaerobic cultures. Surgical drainage for abscess.
Note (3):Staphylococcus lugdunensis usually susceptible to gentamicin. 75% are penicillin-susceptible.
  • 1.1 Acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection (cystitis-urethritis) in females
Note (1): Pyridium non-prescription—may relieve dysuria. Hemolysis if G6PD deficient.
Note (2): >7-day treatment recommended in pregnancy [discontinue or do not use sulfonamides (Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole) near term (2 weeks before EDC) because of potential increase in kernicterus]. If failure on 3-day course, culture and treat for 2 weeks.
  • 1.2 Recurrent urinary tract infection in postmenopausal women
Note (1): Recurrent urinary tract infection definition is ≥3 culture and symptomatic urinary tract infection in 1 year or 2 urinary tract infection in 6 months. Evaluate for potentially correctable urologic factors like (1) cystocele (2) incontinence (3) increased residual urine volume (≥50 mL).
Note (2): Nitrofurantoin more effective than vaginal cream in decreasing frequency, but adverse effect is pulmonary fibrosis with long-term Nitrofurantoin treatment.
  • Streptococcus moniliformis treatment[24]
  • 1. Migratory arthropathy and arthritis
  • Preferred regimen (uncomplicated disease): Penicillin G 2.4-4.8 MU/day IV divided q6h. If better after 1 wk, switch to oral Amoxicillin OR Penicillin Vk complete 14 days.
  • 2. Diarrhea, (especially kids) liver or spleen abscess
  • Preferred regimen (uncomplicated disease): Penicillin G 2.4-4.8 MU/day IV divided q6h. If better after 1 wk, switch to oral Amoxicillin OR Penicillin Vk complete 14 days.
  • 3. Undifferentiated fever
  • Preferred regimen (uncomplicated disease): Penicillin G 2.4-4.8 MU/day IV divided q6h. If better after 1 wk, switch to oral Amoxicillin OR Penicillin Vk complete 14 days.
  • 4. Endocarditis, myocarditis, pericarditis (cardiac)
  • 5. Meningitis, brain abscess
  • 6. Anemia
  • Preferred regimen (uncomplicated disease): Penicillin G 2.4-4.8 MU/day IV divided q6h. If better after 1 wk, switch to oral Amoxicillin OR Penicillin Vk complete 14 days.
  • 7. Pneumonia
  • Preferred regimen (uncomplicated disease): Penicillin G 2.4-4.8 MU/day IV divided q6h. If better after 1 wk, switch to oral Amoxicillin OR Penicillin Vk complete 14 days.
  • 8. Amnionitis (pregnancy)
  • Preferred regimen (uncomplicated disease): Penicillin G 2.4-4.8 MU/day IV divided q6h. If better after 1 wk, switch to oral Amoxicillin OR Penicillin Vk complete 14 days.
  • 9. Renal abscess
  • Preferred regimen (uncomplicated disease): Penicillin G 2.4-4.8 MU/day IV divided q6h. If better after 1 wk, switch to oral Amoxicillin OR Penicillin Vk complete 14 days.
  • Streptococcus anginosus treatment[25]
Note (1): Endocarditis caused by Steptococcus anginosus module for management is follow viridans Streptococci recommendations.
Note (2): Dental abscesses,sinusitis,fasciitis of head and neck caused by Steptococcus anginosus can be life threatening and require aggressive surgical management and appropriate HEENT module for specific management.
Note (3): Bacteremia caused by Steptococcus anginosus often associated with deep-seated abscess—most often intraabdominal investigation for abscess is required.Drainage is usually recommended.
Note (4): Brain abscesses caused by Steptococcus anginosus is often polymicrobial,but S.intermedius found in 50-80%.
Note (5): Infection caused by Steptococcus anginosus is implicated in aspiration pneumonia,lung abscess and empyema.


  • Streptococcus pneumonia treatment
  • 1. Lung (pneumonia)
  • Community-acquired pneumonia [18]
  • 1.1 Penicillin sensitive (minimum inhibitory concentration ≤ 2)
  • Preferred regimen (1): Aqueous crystalline Penicillin-G 6 MU q4-6h IV for 4 weeks
  • Preferred regimen (2) (who are unable to tolerate beta lactams therapy): Vancomycin 15 mg/kg/day IV q12h
  • Preferred regimen (3) (If the isolate is resistant (MIC 2 g/mL) to cefotaxime): Cefotaxime 1-2 g q8-12h IV or IM (max dose: 12 g/24 hr) AND Vancomycin 15 mg/kg/day IV q12h AND Rifampin
  • Alternative regimen: Cefazolin 0.5-2 g q8h IV or IM (max dose: 12 g/24 hr) OR Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q12h
Note : S pneumoniae with intermediate doses Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) 0.12 g/mL–0.5 g/mL penicillin resistance (MIC 0.1 to 1.0 g/mL) or high penicillin resistance (MIC 2.0 g/mL) is being recovered from patients with bacteremia.
  • 3. Sinuses (sinusitis)[27]
  • Sinusitis (empiric therapy)
  • 4. Bronchi (acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis)[28]
  • 5. CNS (meningitis)[29]
  • Empiric therapy
Note: Middle ear infections (otitis media), peritoneum infections (spontaneous bacterial peritonitis), pericardium infections (purulent pericarditis), skin infections (cellulitis) and eye infections (conjunctivitis) caused by Streptococcus pneumonia.
  • Prevention
  • 1. Pneumovax (23-valent) prevents bacteremia; impact on rates of CAP are modest or nil.
  • 2. Prevnar vaccine for children <2 yrs age prevents invasive pneumococcal infection in adults by herd effect. Impact is impressive with rates of invasive pneumococcal infection down 80% in peds and 20-40% in adults.
  • 3. Risk for bacteremia in splenectomy, HIV, smokers, black race, multiple myeloma, asthma.
  • 1. Pharynx
  • 1.1 Pharyngitis
  • Preferred regimen: Penicillin-benzathine]] Penicillin 1.2 mU IM once OR Penicillin VK 500 mg PO bd or tid for 10 days.
  • Alternative regimen (1): Amoxicillin 750 PO bd or tid for 10 days.
  • Alternative regimen (Penicillin allergy) (2): Erythromycin 500 mg PO bd or tid for 10 days OR (Azithromycin 500 mg, then 250 mg for 5 days, Clarithromycin (Biaxin) 1 g XR/day or 500 mg bd for 10 days. Note: 5-10% isolates are macrolide resistant) OR Cefpodoxime proxetil (Vantin) 200 mg bd for 5 days OR Cefdinir 300 mg bd PO for 5 days OR Cefadroxil 500 mg bd PO for 5 days OR Loracarbef 200 mg PO bd for 5 days.
  • 1.2 Epiglottitis in childern
Note: Have tracheostomy set “at bedside.” Chloro is effective, but potentially less toxic alternative agents available.
  • 2. Skin
  • 2.1 Erysipelas, lymphangitis, cellulitis
  • Preferred regimen (1): Clindamycin 600 mg IV q8h AND Penicillin G G 4 mU IV q4h. (clindamycin to stop toxin production).
  • Preferred regimen (2) topical antimicrobials: Retapamulin (Altabax) 1% ointment 5, 10 & 15 gm bid tubes.
Note: Microbiologic success with Retapamulin (Altabax) 1% ointment in 90% S. aureus infections and 97% of S. pyogenes infections(do not use for MRSA)
  • 2.2 Burn wound sepsis
Note: Erythema multiformedue to Herpes simplex type 1, mycoplasma, Streptococcus pyogenes, drugs (sulfonamides, phenytoin, penicillins)
  • 3. Soft tissue
Note: For necrotizing fasciitis, surgical consultation for emergent fasciotomy and debridement; repeat debridements usually necessary.
  • 4. Muscle
Note: For myositis-debirdement is recommended.
  • 5. Toxin mediated
  • 5.1 Toxic shock syndrome
  • Preferred regimen (1): Penicillin G 24 MU qd IV AND Clindamycin 900 mg IV q8h
  • Preferred regimen (2): Immunoglobulin-G IV 1 gm/kg day 1, then 0.5 gm/kg days 2 & 3.,massive IV fluids (10-20 L/day), Albumin if <2 g/dL, debridement of necrotic tissue
  • Alternative regimen: Ceftriaxone 2 gm IV q24h AND Clindamycin 900 mg IV q8h
Note (1): Surgery usually required.
Note (2): Mortality with fasciitis 30–50%, myositis 80% even with early treatment.
Note (3): Clindamycin decreases toxin production.
Note (4): Use of NSAID may predispose to TSS.
Note (5): For reasons Penicillin G may fail in fulminant Streptococcus pyogenes infections
Note (6):Immunoglobulin-G IV associated with decreased in sepsis-related organ failure. IVIG preparations vary in neutralizing antibody content.
  • 6. Breast implant infection
  • Preferred regimen for acute infection: Vancomycin 1 gm IV q12h; if over 100 kg, 1.5 gm q12h.
Note: Acute infection caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Sreptococcus pyogenes. Toxic shock syndrome reported.
  • Preferred regimen for chronic infection:
Note (1): For chronic infections look for rapidly growing Mycobacteria
Note (2): For chronic infections wait for culture results.
  • 7. Acute mastoiditis
  • 7.1 Outpatient treatment
  • 7.1.1 Adult doses for sinusitis
  • 7.1.2 Pediatric doses for sinusitis
Note: need Vancomycin OR Nafcillin/Oxacillin if culture positive for Staphylococcus aureus.
  • 7.2 Hospitalized treatment
  • 8. Eye
  • 8.1 Keratitis
  • 8.1.1 Acute bacterial keratitis
  • Preferred regimen: Moxifloxacin eye gtts. 1 gtt tid for 7 days
  • Alternative therapy: Gatifloxacin eye gtts. 1-2 gtts q2h while awake for 2 days, then q4h for 3-7 days.
Note: Prefer Moxifloxacin due to enhanced lipophilicity and penetration into aqueous humor (1 gtt = 1 drop).
  • 8.1.2 Keratitis due to dry cornea, diabetes, immunosuppression
  • Preferred regimen: Cefazolin (50 mg/mL) AND (Gentamicin OR Tobramycin (14 mg/mL) q15–60 min around clock for 24–72 hrs, then slow reduction)
  • Alternative therapy: Vancomycin (50 mg/mL) AND Ceftazidime (50 mg/mL) q15–60 min around clock for 24–72 hrs, then slow reduction.
Note: Specific therapy guided by results of alginate swab culture and sensitivity. Ciprofloxacin 0.3% found clinically equivalent to CefazolinAND Tobramycin; only concern was efficacy of Ciprofloxacin vs S. pneumoniae
  • 8.2 Dacryocystitis (lacrimal sac)
  • 9. Suppurative phlebitis
  • Preferred regimen: Vancomycin 15 mg/kg IV q12h (normal weight):::* Alternative regimen: Daptomycin 6 mg/kg IV q12h:::: Note: Retrospective study for suppurative phlebitis recommends 2-3 weeks IV therapy and 2 weeks PO therapy.
  • 10. Infected prosthetic joint
Note: Debridement & prosthesis retention with intravenous antibiotics.
  • 11. “Hot” tender parotid swelling
Note: Predisposing factors are stone(s) in Stensen’s duct, dehydration. Therapy depends on ID of specific etiologic organism.
  • 12. Diabetic foot ulcer (ulcer with <2 cm of superficial inflammation)
  • Preferred regimen: (Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole-DS 1-2 tabs PO bid OR Minocycline 100 mg PO bid) AND ([[Penicillin VK 500 mg PO qidOR selected Cephalosporins 2, 3 generation - cefprozil 500 mg PO q12h OR cefuroxime axetil 500 mg PO q12h OR cefdinir 300 mg PO q12h or 600 mg PO q24h OR cefpodoxime 200 mgPO q12h OR Fluoroquinolones Levo 750 mg po q24h).
Note (1): Common infections are bacterial pharyngitis and cellulitis. Rare but devastating are toxic shock syndrome, necrotizing fasciitis.
Note (2): Diagnosis recovery from normally sterile site, ASO antibody response (rheumatic fever),anti-DNAase B (pyoderma). Supportive are positive throat culture or rapid strep antigen test.
Note (3): Cellulitis is very hard to detect Group A streptococcus by culture (needle aspiration or blood culture).
Note (4): Ecologic niche is pharynx. 2-3% of adults colonized, 15-20% school children. Virulence depends on proteins that represent toxins, mimic host macromolecules and after immune responses.
Note (5): Predisposing factors: soft tissue (IDU, diabetes, surgery, trauma, varicella, vein donor, lymphedema); pneumonia (influenza), contacts w/ gas (pharyngitis and fasciitis).
Note (6): Mastoiditis has become a rare entity, presumably as result of the aggressive treatment of acute otitis media.
  • 1. Acute rheumatic fever prophylaxis
  • 2. Recurrent cellulitis, chronic lymphedema prophylaxis


  • Streptococcus agalactiae treatment [31]
  • 1. Bacteremia, soft tissue infections
  • Preferred regimen: Penicillin G 10-12 MU/day for 10 days [e.g., give 2 MU q4h or six divided doses/day].
  • 2. Meningitis (Adult)
  • Preferred regimen: Penicillin G 20-24 MU/day for 14-21 days.
  • 3. Osteomyelitis
  • 4. Endocarditis
Note (1):Gentamicin 1 mg/kg q8h IV additionally for any serious group B Streptococcus infection.
Note (2): Penicillin allergic may substitute Vancomycin 15 mg/kg IV q12h for Penicillin.
Note (3): Clindamycin can be considered, but rates of resistance vary. Consider confirming absence of inducible Clindamycin resistance (typically associated with macrolide resistance) before using as monotherapy.
Note (4): Streptococcus agalactiae causes neonatal sepsis or meningitis, puerperal sepsis, chorioamnionitis; also bacteremia (often without clear source), skin and soft-tissue infections, septic arthritis. Found in gastrointestinal,genitourinary tracts. More common in adults >65 years and those with comorbidities.

Bacteria – Gram-Positive Bacilli

  • Actinomyces israelii treatment[32]
  • Arcanobacterium haemolyticum treatment
Note: Arcanobacterium haemolyticum is sensitivity to most drugs but resistent to Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole
  • 1. Treatment for cutaneous anthrax, without systemic involvement[33]
Note: Duration of treatment is 60 days for bioterrorism-related cases and 7-10 days for naturally acquired cases.
  • 2. Treatment for systemic anthrax including anthrax meningitis, inhalational anthrax, injectional anthrax, and gastrointestinal anthrax; and cutaneous anthrax with systemic involvement, extensive edema, or lesions of the head or neck[33]
  • 2.1 Systemic anthrax with possible/confirmed meningitis
Note (1): Duration of treatment= 2-3 weeks until clinical criteria for stability are met (Preferred drugs are indicated in boldface).
Note (2): Patients exposed to aerosolized spores will require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial drug course of 60 days from onset of illness.
Note (3): Alternative drugs are listed in order of preference for treatment for patients who cannot take first-line treatment, or if first-line treatment is unavailable.
Note (4): Increased risk for seizures associated with Imipenem/Cilastatin treatment.
Note (5): Linezolid should be used with caution in patients with thrombocytopenia because it might exacerbate it. Linezolid use for > 14 days has additional hematopoietic toxicity.
Note (6): Rifampin is not a protein synthesis inhibitor. However, it may be used in combination with other antimicrobial drugs on the basis of its in vitro synergy.
Note (7): Chloramphenicol should only be used if other options are not available because of toxicity concerns.
  • 2.2 Systemic anthrax when meningitis has been excluded
Note (1): Duration of treatment: for 2 weeks until clinical criteria for stability are met (Preferred drugs are indicated in boldface).
Note (2): Patients exposed to aerosolized spores will require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial drug course of 60 days from onset of illness.
Note (3): Alternative drugs are listed in order of preference for treatment for patients who cannot take first-line treatment, or if first-line treatment is unavailable.
Note (4): Increased risk for seizures associated with Imipenem/Cilastatin treatment.
Note (5): Linezolid should be used with caution in patients with thrombocytopenia because it might exacerbate it. Linezolid use for > 14 days has additional hematopoietic toxicity.
Note (6): Rifampin is not a protein synthesis inhibitor. However, it may be used in combination with other antimicrobial drugs on the basis of its in vitro synergy.
Note (7): A single 10-14 days course of Doxycycline is not routinely associated with tooth staining.
  • 3. Specific considerations
  • 3.1 Treatment of anthrax for pregnant Women
  • 3.1.1 Intravenous antimicrobial treatment for systemic anthrax with possible/confirmed meningitis [34]
  • 3.1.1.1 A Bactericidal Agent (Fluoroquinolone): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q8h is preferred, OR Levofloxacin 750 mg IV q24h, OR
  • 3.1.1.2 A Bactericidal Agent (ß-lactam)
  • 3.1.1.2.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown: Meropenem 2 g q8h,OR
  • 3.1.1.2.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains: Ampicillin 3 g IV q6h,OR Penicillin G 4 million units IV q4h, OR
Note (1): At least one antibiotic with transplacental passage is recommended.
Note (2): Duration of treatment is for =2–3 weeks until clinical criteria for stability are met. Patients exposed to aerosolized spores will require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial drug course of 60 days from onset of illness.
  • 3.1.2 Intravenous antimicrobial treatment for systemic anthrax when meningitis has been excluded
  • 3.1.2.1 A Bactericidal Antimicrobial: Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q8h is preferred, OR Levofloxacin 750 mg IV q24h, OR
  • 3.1.2.2 A Bactericidal Agent (ß-lactam)
  • 3.1.2.2.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown: Meropenem 2 g q8h,OR
  • 3.1.2.2.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains:Ampicillin 3 g IV q6h,OR Penicillin G 4 million units IV q4h, OR
Note (1): At least one antibiotic with transplacental passage is recommended.
Note (2):Duration of treatment: for =2 weeks until clinical criteria for stability are met. Patients exposed to aerosolized spores will require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial drug course of 60 days from onset of illness
  • 3.1.3 Oral antimicrobial treatment for cutaneous anthrax without systemic involvement
  • 3.1.3.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown: Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q8h is preferred.
Note (1): duration of treatment is 60 days
Note (2): Recommendations are specific to cutaneous anthrax in the setting of bioterrorism.
  • 3.2 Treatment for anthrax in childern [35]
  • 3.2.1 Treatment of cutaneous anthrax without systemic involvement (for children 1 month of age and older)
  • 3.2.1.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown : Ciprofloxacin, 30 mg/kg/day, by mouth (PO), divided q12h (not to exceed 500 mg/dose) OR Doxycycline, <45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q12h (not to exceed 100 mg/dose) =45 kg: 100 mg/dose, PO, given q12h OR Clindamycin, 30 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q8h (not to exceed 600 mg/dose) OR Levofloxacin <50 kg: 16 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q12h (not to exceed 250 mg/dose) >50 kg: 500 mg, PO, given q24h OR
  • 3.2.1.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains: Amoxicillin, 75 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q8h (not to exceed 1 g/dose) OR Penicillin VK, 50-75 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q6h to q8h
Note (1): Duration of therapy for naturally acquired infection: 7-10 days and for a biological weapon-related event: will require additional prophylaxis for inhaled spores, to complete an antimicrobial course of up to 60 days from onset of illness.
Note (2): Bold font for preferred antimicrobial agent.
Note (3): Normal font for alternative selections are listed in order of preference for therapy for patients who cannot take first-line therapy or first-line therapy is unavailable.
Note (4): Doses are provided for children with normal renal and hepatic function. Doses may vary for those with some degree of organ failure.
Note (5): Italicized font indicates FDA approval for the indication in the pediatric population.
Note (6): A single 10- to 14-day course of doxycycline is not routinely associated with tooth staining.
Note (7): Be aware of the possibility of emergence of penicillin-resistance during monotherapy with amoxicillin or penicillin.
  • 3.2.2 Combination therapy for systemic anthrax when meningitis can be ruled out (for children 1 month of age and older)
  • 3.2.2.1 A bactericidal antimicrobial
  • 3.2.2.1.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown: Ciprofloxacin, 30 mg/kg/day, intravenously (IV), divided q8h (not to exceed 400 mg/dose) OR Meropenem, 60 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h (not to exceed 2 g/dose) OR Levofloxacin <50 kg: 20 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 250 mg/dose >50 kg: 500 mg, IV, q24h OR Imipenem/Cilastatin,a 100 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q6h (not to exceed 1 g/dose) OR Vancomycin, 60 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h (follow serum concentrations)
  • 3.2.2.1.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains: Penicillin G, 400 000 U/kg/day, IV, divided q4h (not to exceed 4 MU/dose) OR Ampicillin, 200 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q6h (not to exceed 3 g/dose) AND
  • 3.2.2.2 A Protein Synthesis Inhibitor: Clindamycin, 40 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h (not to exceed 900 mg/dose) OR Linezolid (non-CNS infection dose): <12 y old: 30 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h =12 y old: 30 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 600 mg/dose) OR Doxycycline <45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg/day, IV, loading dose (not to exceed 200 mg); =45 kg: 200 mg, IV, loading dose then <45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 100 mg/dose); =45 kg: 100 mg, IV, given q12h OR Rifampin,d 20 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 300 mg/dose)
Note (1): Duration of therapy for 14 days or longer until clinical criteria for stability are met.Will require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial course of up to 60 days from onset of illness.
Note (2): Systemic anthrax includes inhalation anthrax; injection, gastrointestinal, or cutaneous anthrax with systemic involvement, extensive edema, or lesions of the head or neck.
Note (3): Children with altered mental status, signs of meningeal inflammation, or focal neurologic deficits should be considered to have CNS infection if CSF examination is not possible. A normal CSF may not completely exclude deep brain hemorrhage/abscess.
Note (4): Bold font for preferred antimicrobial agent.
Note (5): Normal font for alternative selections are listed in order of preference for therapy for patients who cannot tolerate first-line therapy or if first-line therapy is unavailable.
Note (6): Doses are provided for children with normal renal and hepatic function. Doses may vary for those with some degree of organ failure.
Note (7): Increased risk of seizures associated with Imipenem/Cilastatin therapy.
Note (8): Linezolid should be used with caution in patients with thrombocytopenia, as it may exacerbate it.Linezolid use for >14 days carries additional hematopoietic toxicity.
Note (9): A single 14-day course of Doxycycline is not routinely associated with tooth staining.
Note (10): Rifampin is not a protein synthesis inhibitor; it may also be used in combination therapy based on in vitro synergy
  • 3.2.3 Triple therapy for systemic anthrax (anthrax meningitis or disseminated infection and meningitis cannot be ruled out) for Children 1 Month of Age and Older
  • 3.2.3.1 A bactericidal antimicrobial (fluoroquinolone): Ciprofloxacin, 30 mg/kg/day, intravenously (IV), divided q8h (not to exceed 400 mg/dose)OR Levofloxacin <50 kg: 16 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 250 mg/dose); >50 kg: 500 mg, IV, q24h OR Moxifloxacin 3 months to <2 years: 12 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 200 mg/dose)
2-5 years: 10 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 200 mg/dose)
6–11 years: 8 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 200 mg/dose)
12–17 years, =45 kg body weight: 400 mg, IV, once daily
12–17 years, <45 kg body weight: 8 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 200 mg/dose) AND
  • 3.2.3.2 A bactericidal antimicrobial (ß-lactam or glycopeptide)
  • 3.2.3.2.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility testing or if susceptibility is unknown: Meropenem, 120 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h (not to exceed 2 g/dose) OR Imipenem/Cilastatin, 100 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q6h (not to exceed 1 g/dose) OR Doripenem, 120 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h (not to exceed 1 g/dose) OR Vancomycin, 60 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h
  • 3.2.3.2.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains: Penicillin G, 400 000 U/kg/day, IV, divided q4h (not to exceed 4 MU/dose) OR Ampicillin, 400 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q6h (not to exceed 3 g/dose) AND
  • 3.2.3.3 A Protein Synthesis Inhibitor: Linezolid <12 y old: 30 mg/kg/day, IV, divided every 8 h=12 y old: 30 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 600 mg/dose) OR Clindamycin, 40 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q8h (not to exceed 900 mg/dose) OR Rifampin, 20 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q12h (not to exceed 300 mg/dose) OR Chloramphenicol, 100 mg/kg/day, IV, divided q6h
Note (1): Duration of therapy for 2–3 wk or greater, until clinical criteria for stability are met.Will require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial course of up to 60 days from onset of illness.
Note (2): Systemic anthrax includes anthrax meningitis; inhalation anthrax; or injection, gastrointestinal, and cutaneous anthrax with systemic involvement, extensive edema, or lesions of the head or neck.
Note (3): Children with altered mental status, signs of meningeal inflammation, or focal neurologic deficits should be considered to have CNS infection if CSF examination is not possible. Normal CSF may not completely exclude deep brain hemorrhage/abscess.
Note (4): Bold font for preferred antimicrobial agent.
Note (5): Normal font for alternative selections are listed in order of preference for therapy for patients who cannot tolerate first-line therapy or if first-line therapy is unavailable.
Note (6): Doses are provided for children with normal renal and hepatic function. Doses may vary for those with some degree of organ failure.
Note (7): A 400-mg dose of Ciprofloxacin, IV, provides an equivalent exposure to that of a 500-mg ciprofloxacin oral tablet.
Note (8): Increased risk of seizures associated with Imipenem/Cilastatin therapy.
Note (9): Doripenem is approved in Japan at this dose for the treatment of community-acquired bacterial meningitis.
Note (10): Linezolid should be used with caution in patients with thrombocytopenia, as it may exacerbate it. Linezolid use for >14 days carries additional hematopoietic toxicity.
Note (11): Rifampin is not a protein synthesis inhibitor; it may also be used in combination therapy based on in vitro synergy for some strains of staphylococci. Not evaluated for Bacillus anthracis.
Note (12) : Chloramphenicol Should be used only if other options are not available, because of toxicity concerns.
  • 3.2.4 Oral follow-up combination therapy for severe anthrax (for Children 1 Month of Age and Older)
  • 3.2.4.1 A bactericidal antimicrobial
(a). For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown: Ciprofloxacin, 30 mg/kg/day, by mouth (PO), divided q12h (not to exceed 500 mg/dose) OR Levofloxacin <50 kg: 16 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q12h (not to exceed 250 mg/dose) =50 kg: 500 mg, PO, given q24h OR
(b). Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains: Amoxicillin, 75 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q8h (not to exceed 1 g/dose) OR Penicillin VK, 50–75 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q6h-q8h AND
  • 3.2.4.2 A protein synthesis inhibitor: Clindamycin 30 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q8h (not to exceed 600 mg/dose) OR Doxycycline <45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q12h (not exceed 100 mg/dose) =45 kg: 100 mg, PO, given q12h OR Linezolid (non-CNS infection dose):
<12 y old: 30 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q8h
=12 years old: 30 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q12h (not to exceed 600 mg/dose)
Note (1): Duration of therapy to complete a treatment course of 14 days or greater. May require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial course of up to 60 days from onset of illness.
Note (2): Severe anthrax includes inhalation anthrax; injection, gastrointestinal, or cutaneous anthrax with systemic involvement, extensive edema, or lesions of the head or neck.
Note (3): Bold font for preferred antimicrobial agent.
Note (4): Normal font for alternative selections are listed in order of preference for therapy for patients who cannot take first-line therapy or if first-line therapy is unavailable.
Note (5): Doses are provided for children with normal renal and hepatic function. Doses may vary for those with some degree of organ failure.
Note (6): A single 14-day course of doxycycline is not routinely associated with tooth staining.
Note (7): Linezolid should be used with caution in patients with thrombocytopenia, as it may exacerbate it. Linezolid use for >14 days carries additional hematopoietic toxicity.
  • 3.2.5 Dosing in preterm and term neonates 32 to 44 Weeks postmenstrual Age (Gestational Age Plus Chronologic Age)
  • 3.2.5.1 Triple therapy for severe anthrax(anthrax meningitis or disseminated infection and meningitis cannot be ruled out)
  • 3.2.5.1.1 Bactericidal antimicrobial (fluoroquinolone) therapy
  • 3.2.5.1.1.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Moxifloxacin IV 5 mg/kg/day, q24h
For 1–4 weeks of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Moxifloxacin IV 5 mg/kg/day, q24h
  • 3.2.5.1.1.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 wk of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Moxifloxacin IV 5 mg/kg/day, q24h
For 1–4 wk of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Moxifloxacin IV 5 mg/kg/day, q24h
  • 3.2.5.1.1.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Moxifloxacin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h
For 1–4 weeks of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Moxifloxacin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h AND
  • 3.2.5.1.2 A bactericidal antimicrobial (ß-lactam)
  • 3.2.5.1.2.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown:
  • 3.2.5.1.2.1.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Imipenem IV 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Doripenem IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 wk of Age : Meropenem IV 90 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Imipenem IV 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Doripenem IV 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.1.2.1.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Imipenem IV 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Doripenem IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Meropenem IV 90 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Imipenem IV 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Doripenem IV 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.1.2.1.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Imipenem IV 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Doripenem IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Meropenem IV 90 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Imipenem IV 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Doripenem IV 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR
  • 3.2.5.1.2.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains
  • 3.2.5.1.2.2.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Penicillin G 200000 Units/kg/day divided q12h,OR Ampicillin 100 mg/kg/day divided q12h,
For 1–4 week of Age : Penicillin G 300000 Units/kg/day divided q12h,OR Ampicillin 150 mg/kg/day divided q12h,
  • 3.2.5.1.2.2.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Penicillin G 300000 Units/kg/day divided q12h,OR Ampicillin 150 mg/kg/day divided q12h,
For 1–4 week of Age : Penicillin G 400000 Units/kg/day divided q12h,OR Ampicillin 200 mg/kg/day divided q12h,
  • 3.2.5.1.2.2.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Penicillin G 300000 Units/kg/day divided q12h,OR Ampicillin 150 mg/kg/day divided q12h,
For 1–4 week of Age : Penicillin G 400000 Units/kg/day divided q12h,OR Ampicillin 200 mg/kg/day divided q12h, AND
  • 3.2.5.1.3 A protein synthesis inhibitor
  • 3.2.5.1.3.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Linezolid 20 mg/kg/day,divided q12h, OR Clindamycin 10 mg/kg/day,divided q12h OR Rifampin 10 mg/kg/day,divided q12h , OR Chloramphenicol 25 mg/kg/day,q24h
For 1–4 week of Age : Linezolid 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Clindamycin 15 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Rifampin 10 mg/kg/day,divided q12h, OR Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg/day,q12h
  • 3.2.5.1.3.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Linezolid 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Clindamycin 15 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Rifampin 10 mg/kg/day,divided q12h, OR Chloramphenicol 25 mg/kg/day,q24h
For 1–4 week of Age : Linezolid 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Clindamycin 20 mg/kg/day,divided q6h OR Rifampin 10 mg/kg/day,divided q12h, OR Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg/day,q12h
  • 3.2.5.1.3.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Linezolid 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Clindamycin 15 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Rifampin 10 mg/kg/day,divided q12h, OR Chloramphenicol 25 mg/kg/day,q24h
For 1–4 week of Age : Linezolid 30 mg/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Clindamycin 20 mg/kg/day,divided q6h OR {[Rifampin]] 20 mg/kg/day,divided q12h, OR Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg/day,q12h
Note :Duration of therapy For =2–3 week, until clinical criteria for stability are met. Will require prophylaxis to complete an antibiotic course of upto 60 days from onset of illness.
  • 3.2.5.2 Therapy for severe anthrax when meningitis can be ruled out
  • 3.2.5.2.1 A bactericidal antimicrobial
  • 3.2.5.2.1.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown
  • 3.2.5.2.1.1.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day,divided q12h OR Meropenem IV 40 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Imipenem IV 40 mg/kg/day,divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day,divided q12h OR Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Imipenem 50 mg/kg/day,divided q12h
  • 3.2.5.2.1.1.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day,divided q12h OR Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Imipenem 50 mg/kg/day,divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 20 mg/kg/day,divided q12h OR Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Imipenem 75 mg/kg/day,divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.2.1.1.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 30 mg/kg/day,divided q12h OR Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Imipenem 50 mg/kg/day,divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin IV 30 mg/kg/day,divided q12h OR Meropenem IV 60 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR Imipenem 75 mg/kg/day,divided q8h OR
Vancomycin IV (dosing based on serum creatinine for infants =32 wk gestational age). Follow vancomycin serum concentrations to modify dose.
If Serum creatinine <0.7 then Vancomycin IV 15 mg/kg/dose q12h
If Serum creatinine 0.7 -0.9 then Vancomycin IV 20 mg/kg/dose q24h
If Serum creatinine 1–1.2 then Vancomycin IV 15 mg/kg/dose q24h
If Serum creatinine 1.3–1.6 then Vancomycin IV 10 mg/kg/dose q24h
If Serum creatinine >1.6 15 then Vancomycin IV mg/kg/dose q48h
Note : Begin treatment with a 20-mg/kg loading dose OR
  • 3.2.5.2.1.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains
  • 3.2.5.2.1.2.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Penicillin G IV 200000 U/kg/day,divided q12h, OR Ampicillin IV 100 mg/kg/day,divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Penicillin G IV 300000 U/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Ampicillin IV 150 mg/kg/day,divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.2.1.2.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Penicillin G IV 300000 U/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Ampicillin IV 150 mg/kg/day,divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Penicillin G IV 400000 U/kg/day,divided q6h, OR Ampicillin IV 200 mg/kg/day,divided q6h
  • 3.2.5.2.1.2.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Penicillin G IV 300000 U/kg/day,divided q8h, OR Ampicillin IV 150 mg/kg/day,divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Penicillin G IV 400000 U/kg/day,divided q6h, OR Ampicillin IV 200 mg/kg/day,divided q6h AND
  • 3.2.5.2.2 A protein synthesis inhibitor
  • 3.2.5.2.2.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Clindamycin IV 10 mg/kg/day, divided q12h, OR Linezolid IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h, OR Rifampin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h
For 1–4 week of Age : Clindamycin IV 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Linezolid IV 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Rifampin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h
  • 3.2.5.2.2.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Clindamycin IV 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Linezolid IV 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Rifampin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h
For 1–4 week of Age : Clindamycin IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h, OR Linezolid IV 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Rifampin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h
  • 3.2.5.2.2.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Clindamycin IV 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Linezolid IV 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Doxycycline IV 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h, (loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Rifampin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h
For 1–4 week of Age : Clindamycin IV 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h, OR Linezolid IV 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h, OR Doxycycline IV 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h, (loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Rifampin IV 10 mg/kg/day, q24h
Note: Duration of therapy: For =2–3 wk, until clinical criteria for stability are met (see text). Will require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial course of upto 60 days from onset of illness
  • 3.2.5.3 Oral follow-up combination therapy for severe anthrax
  • 3.2.5.3.1 A bactericidal antimicrobial
  • 3.2.5.3.1.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown
  • 3.2.5.3.1.1.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
  • 3.2.5.3.1.1.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
  • 3.2.5.3.1.1.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR
  • 3.2.5.3.1.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains
  • 3.2.5.3.1.2.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h, OR Penicillin VK PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin VK PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.3.1.2.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Penicillin VK PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin VK PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.3.1.2.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin VK PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin VK PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q6–8h AND
  • 3.2.5.3.2 A protein synthesis inhibitor
  • 3.2.5.3.2.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Clindamycin PO 10 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Linezolid PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Linezolid PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.3.2.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Linezolid PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Clindamycin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h OR Linezolid PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.3.2.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Doxycycline PO 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h (loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Linezolid PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age :Clindamycin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h OR Doxycycline PO 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h (loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Linezolid PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR
Note: Duration of therapy: to complete a treatment course of 10–14 days or greater. May require prophylaxis to complete an antimicrobial course of upto 60 days from onset of illness.
  • 3.2.5.4 Treatment of cutaneous anthrax without systemic involvement
  • 3.2.5.4.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown
  • 3.2.5.4.1.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 10 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.4.1.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h
  • 3.2.5.4.1.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Doxycycline PO 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h (Loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Doxycycline PO 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h (Loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Clindamycin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h
  • 3.2.5.4.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains
  • 3.2.5.4.2.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Penicillin Vk PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.4.2.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Penicillin Vk PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.5.4.2.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q6–8h
Note : Duration of therapy for naturally acquired infection is 7–10 days and for a biological weapon–related event,may require additional prophylaxis for inhaled spores to complete an antimicrobial course of up to 60 days from onset of illness.
  • 1.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown: Ciprofloxacin, 500 mg q12h OR Doxycycline, 100 mg q12h OR Levofloxacin, 750 mg q24h OR Moxifloxacin, 400 mg q24h OR Clindamycin, 600 mg q8h OR
  • 1.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strain: Amoxicillin 1 g q8h OR Penicillin VK 500 mg q6h
Note (1): Preferred drugs are indicated in boldface.
Note (2): Alternative drugs are listed in order of preference for treatment for patients who cannot take first-line treatment or if first-line treatment is unavailable.
  • 2. For children = 1 month[35]
  • 2.1 For penicillin-resistant strains or prior to susceptibility testing: Ciprofloxacin, 30 mg/kg/day, by mouth (PO), divided q12h (not to exceed 500 mg/dose) OR Doxycycline, <45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q12h (not to exceed 100 mg/dose) >45 kg: 100 mg/dose, PO, given q12h OR Clindamycin, 30 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q8h (not to exceed 900 mg/dose) OR Levofloxacin, <50 kg: 16 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q12h (not to exceed 250 mg/dose) >50 kg: 500 mg, PO, given q24h OR
  • 2.2 For penicillin-susceptible strains: Amoxicillin, 75 mg/kg/day, PO, divided every q8h (not to exceed 1 g/dose) OR Penicillin VK, 50-75 mg/kg/day, PO, divided q6h to q8h
Note (1) : Duration of Therapy is 60 days after exposure
Note (2) : Bold font are preferred antimicrobial agent (when 2 bolded antimicrobial agents are present, both are considered equivalent in overall safety and efficacy).
Note (3) : Normal font are alternative selections are listed in order of preference for therapy for patients who cannot take first-line therapy or if first-line therapy is unavailable.
Note (4) : Doses are provided for children with normal renal and hepatic function. Doses may vary for those with some degree of organ failure.
Note (5) : Italicized font: indicates FDA approval for the indication in the pediatric population.
Note (6) : A single 14-day course of doxycycline is not routinely associated with tooth staining, but some degree of staining is likely for a prolonged treatment course of up to 60 days.
Note (7) : Safety data for Levofloxacin in the pediatric population are limited to 14 days for duration therapy.
Note (8) : Be aware of the possibility of emergence of penicillin-resistance during monotherapy with Amoxicillin or Penicillin.
  • 3. For children < 1 month
  • 3.1 For all strains, regardless of penicillin susceptibility or if susceptibility is unknown
  • 3.1.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 10 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.1.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Clindamycin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h
  • 3.1.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Doxycycline PO 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h (Loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Clindamycin PO 15 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Ciprofloxacin PO 30 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Doxycycline PO 4.4 mg/kg/day, divided q12h (Loading dose 4.4 mg/kg) OR Clindamycin PO 20 mg/kg/day, divided q6h OR
  • 3.2 Alternatives for penicillin-susceptible strains
  • 3.2.1 For 32–34 weeks gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Penicillin Vk PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.2 For 34–37 week gestational age
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h OR Penicillin Vk PO 50 mg/kg/day, divided q12h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
  • 3.2.3 Term Newborn Infant
For 0–1 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h
For 1–4 week of Age : Amoxicillin PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q8h OR Penicillin Vk PO 75 mg/kg/day, divided q6–8h
Note: Duration of therapy is 60 days from exposure
  • Bacillus cereus treatment[36]
  • 1. Food poisoning
  • Preferred treatment: Food poisoning is self-limited, no antibiotics necessary. Treatment is Supportive therapy, hydration, and anti-emetics. Prevention is by fried/boiled rice should be maintained >60° C or rapidly cooled <8 ° C to avoid room temperature germination of spores and toxin.
Note (1): Bacillus cereus with two forms.(a) Emetic phase: 1-6 hrs after ingestion contaminated usually starchy food, e.g., fried rice. (b) Diarrheal phase: 10-12 hrs after eating e.g. tainted meats, milk, vegetables, etc. with watery diarrhea, tenesmus lasting <2-10 days.
  • 2. Bacteremia
Note (1): Bacillus cereus often resistant to beta-lactams.
Note (2): Uncommon, may complicate mixed infections including surgical wounds or infected necrotic tumors.
Note (3): Source of pseudobacteremia is contaminated blood cultures, gloves, syringes, etc. Often transient bacteremia of no significance in intravenous drug user population.
  • 3. Meningitis, brain abscess
Note (1): Blood culture isolates are mostly contaminates until proven otherwise, especially in intravenous drug user population.
Note(2): Uncommon presentations, may complicate otitis, mastoiditis, neurosurgical procedures, and shunts.
  • 4. Endophthalmitis
Note (1): Prognosis for sight retention poor.
Note (2): Rapid, massive destruction of vitreous/retina in intravenous drug user or posttraumatic with ringabscess within 48 hrs. Pathognomic Bacillus cereus panophthalmitis.
Note (3): Early ophthalmological consultation, culture ocular fluids. Early vitrectomy and intravitreal antibiotics is advocated.
Note (4): Ocular infections devastating and require quick intervention.
Note (5): primary pathogen of post-traumatic , risk factor also intravenous drug use. May also cause keratitis, orbital abscess, conjunctivitis, dacryocystitis.
  • 5. Endocarditis
Note (1): Well-described but rare complication seen in intravenous drug user . Most blood cultures in intravenous drug user positive for bacillus are contaminates or represent transient bacteremia.
Note (2): Evidence of valvular involvement should be sought by echocardiography to prove endocarditis. Tricuspid valve involvement most common. Course indolent.
Note (3): Tricuspid valve endocarditis mostly indolent in nature.
  • 6. Soft tissue
note: rare reports of fasciitis.
  • 7. Pneumonia
Note: rare pathogen of compromised host. May mimic Bacillus anthracis-type presentation.
  • 1. Food poisoning
  • Preferred regimen: supportive treatment
  • 2. Other infections
  • Preferred regimen: Trivalent antitoxin (A 7,500 IU, B 5,000 IU, and E 5,000 IU) 1 vial diluted 1:10, IV infusion over 30 min
  • Alternative regimen: Equine antitoxin
  • 2.General Therapy
  • Preferred regimen: Mechanical ventilation; IV hydration; tube feedings
  • Clostridium perfringens [41]
  • 1. General measures
  • Preferred regimen: Patients should be placed in a quiet shaded area and protected from tactile and auditory stimulation as much as possible; All wounds should be cleaned and debrided as indicated
  • 2. Immunotherapy
  • Preferred regimen: Human TIG 500 units by intramuscular injection or intravenously as soon as possible AND Age-appropriate TT-containing vaccine, 0.5 cc by intramuscular injection at a separate site
  • NOTE: patients without a history of primary TT vaccination should receive a second dose 1–2 months after the first dose and a third dose 6–12 months later
  • 3. Antibiotic treatment
  • 4. Muscle spasm control
  • Preferred regimen: Diazepam 5 mg intravenous OR Lorazepam 2 mg titrating to achieve spasm control without excessive sedation and hypoventilation
  • Alternative regimen (1): Magnesium sulphate 5 gm (or 75mg/kg) intravenous loading dose, then 2–3 grams per hour until spasm control is achieved ± Benzodiazepines
  • NOTE: Monitor patellar reflex as areflexia (absence of patellar reflex) occurs at the upper end of the therapeutic range (4mmol/L). If areflexia develops, dose should be decreased
  • Alternative regimen (2): Baclofen OR Dantrolene 1–2 mg/kg intravenous/orally every 4 hours
  • Alternative regimen (3): Barbiturates 100–150 mg every 1–4 hours by any route
  • Alternative regimen (4): Chlorpromazine 50–150 mg by intramuscular injection every 4–8 hours
  • Pediatric regimen: Lorazepam 0.1–0.2 mg/kg every 2–6 hours, titrating upward as needed; Barbiturates 6–10 mg/kg in children by any route; Chlorpromazine 4–12 mg every by intramuscular injection every 4–8 hours
  • NOTE: As for Benzodiazepines, large amounts may be required (up to 600 mg/day); Oral preparations could be used but must be accompanied by careful monitoring to avoid respiratory depression or arrest
  • 5. Autonomic dysfunction control
  • 1.Diphtheria treatment[42]
  • 1.1 Antitoxin
  • Preferred regimen: 20,000-40,000 U pharyngeal disease <48 hrs; 40-60,000 U nasopharyngeal; 80-120,000 U for extensive disease, brawny neck or sx >72 hrs; Adiminister IV (severe disease) or IM
  • 1.2 Antibiotics:
  • Preferred regimen: Procaine Penicillin G (<20 lbs: 300,000 U; >20 lbs: 600,000 U) IM q12h until patient can swallow then Penicillin VK 125-250 mg PO QID OR Erythromycin 125-500 mg PO QID for 14 days total.
  • Alternative regimen (1): Erythromycin 20-25mg/kg IV q6h (max 4g/day; β-lactam allergic patients)
  • Alternative regimen (2): Clindamycin 600 mg IV q8h
  • 2.C. diphtheriae carrier
  • 3.Endocarditis treatment
  • Q fever [43]
  • 1.Acute Q fever
  • 1.1 Adults
  • Preferred Regimen: DoxycyclinePO 100 mg bid for 14 days
  • 1.2 Children
  • 1.2.1Children with age ≥8 years:
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 2.2 mg/kg per dose bid for 14 days (maximum 100 mg per dose)
  • 1.2.2 children with age <8 years with high risk criteria
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 2.2 mg/kg per dose bid for 14 days (maximum: 100 mg per dose)
  • 1.2.3 children with age <8 years with mild or uncomplicated illness
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 2.2 mg/kg per dose bid for 5 days (maximum 100 mg per dose). If patient remains febrile past 5 days of treatment: Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole 4-20 mg/kg bid for 14 days (maximum: 800 mg per dose)
  • 1.3 Pregnant women
  • 2. Chronic Q fever
  • 2.1 Endocarditis or vascular infection
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 100 mg bid and Hydroxychloroquine PO 200 mg tid for ≥18 months
  • Note: childern and pregnant women- consultation Recommended
  • 2.2 Noncardiac organ disease
  • 2.3 Postpartumwith serologic profile for chronic Q fever
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 100 mg bid and Hydroxychloroquine PO 200 mg tid for 12 months
  • Note: Women should only be treated postpartum if serologic titers remain elevated >12 months after delivery (immunoglobulin G phase I titer ≥1:1024). Women treated during pregnancy for acute Q fever should be monitored similarly to other patients who are at high risk for progression to chronic disease (e.g., serologic monitoring at 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after delivery)
  • Note:Post-Q fever fatigue syndrome- no current recommendation
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 100 mg PO/IV q12h for 7-14 days
  • NOTE: Patients should be treated for at least 3 days after the fever subsides and until there is evidence of clinical improvement
  • Alternative regimen: Chloramphenicol 500mg QID OR Rifampin 600 mg PO/IV daily for 7-10 days
  • 2.1 ≥8 years old
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 2 mg/kg IV/PO q12h (max 200 mg/day) for 10 days
  • 2.2 <8 years old without Lyme disease
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 2 mg/kg IV/PO q12h (max 200 mg/day) for 4-5 days (or 3 days after resolution of fever)
  • 2.3 co-infected with Lyme disease
  • Preferred regimen: At the conclusion of Doxycycline then give Amoxicillin 50 mg/kg in 3 divided doses (max 500 mg/dose) OR Cefuroxime 30 mg/kg in 2 divided doses (max 500 mg/dose) for 14 days
  • 1. Erysipeloid of Rosenbach (localized cutaneous infection)[45]
  • 2. Diffuse cutaneous infection
  • Preferred regimen: As for localized infection
Note: Assess for endocarditis
  • 3. Bacteremia or endocarditis
  • Preferred regimen: Penicillin G benzathine 2-4 MU IV q4h for 4-6 weeks
  • Alternative regimen (1): Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q24h for 4-6 weeks
  • Alternative regimen (2): Imipenem 500 mg IV q6h for 4-6 weeks
  • Alternative regimen (3): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q12h for 4-6 weeks
  • Alternative regimen (4): Daptomycin 6 mg/kg IV q24h for 4-6 weeks
Note: Recommended duration of therapy for endocarditis is 4 to 6 weeks, although shorter courses consisting of 2 weeks of intravenous therapy followed by 2 to 4 weeks of oral therapy have been successful.
  • Preferred regimen: Ampicillin 2g IV q4-6h ± Gentamicin 1.7 mg/kg IV q8h for more than 3 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: TMP-SMX 3-5 mg/kg (trimethoprim) q6h IV for more than 3 weeks
  • 2. Bacteremia
  • Preferred regimen: Ampicillin 2g IV q4-6h ± Gentamicin 1.7 mg/kg IV q8h for 2 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: TMP-SMX 3-5 mg/kg (trimethoprim) q6h IV for 2 weeks
  • 3. Brain abscess or rhomboencephalitis
  • Preferred regimen: Ampicillin 2g IV q4-6h ± Gentamicin 1.7 mg/kg IV q8h for 4-6 weeks
  • Alternative regimen: TMP-SMX 3-5 mg/kg (trimethoprim) q6h IV for 4-6 weeks
  • 4. Gastroenteritis
  • 1. Endovascular Infection [47]
  • 2. Odontogenic Infection
  • 3. Intrabdominal Abscess
  • 1. Sulfonamide-based therapies [48]
  • 1.1 Pulmonary
  • Preferred regimen: TMP-SMX 10 mg/kg/day (TMP) in 2-4 doses IV for 3-6 weeks, then PO (2 DS BID) for >5 months
  • 1.2 Pulmonary alternatives
  • 1.3 CNS (AIDS, severe or disseminated disease)
  • Preferred regimen: TMP-SMX 15 mg/kg/day (TMP) IV for 3-6 weeks, then PO (3 DS BID) for 6-12 months
  • 1.4 CNS alternatives
  • 1.5 Severe disease, compromised host, multiple sites
  • 1.6 Sporotrichoid (cutaneous)
  • Preferred regimen: TMP-SMX 1 DS BID for 4-6 months
  • NOTE(1): Immunocompetent medicine use for 6 months; Immunosuppressed medicine for 12 months
  • NOTE(2): Treat based on host, site of disease and in vitro activity; Sulfonamide usually preferred, must treat for 6-12 months; Preferred drugs for resistant strains are Amikacin and/or Imipenem
  • NOTE(3): Seriously ill usually treated with IV Imipenem or Sulfonamide or Cefotaxime all potentially combined with Amikacin; less seriously ill treated with oral agents— especially TMP-SMX or Minocycline
  • 2. Sulfonamide alternatives
  • 2.1 Severe
  • 2.2 Mild
  • 1. Systemic infection[49]
  • 2. Shoulder prosthesis infection
  • 3. Acne vulgaris
  • Rhodococcus equi [50]
  • 1. Preferred regimen:
  • 1.1 First line: vancomycin 1 g IV q12h (15 mg/kg q12 for >70 kg) OR Imipenem 500 mg IV q6h AND Rifampin 600 mg PO once daily OR Ciprofloxacin 750 mg PO twice daily OR Erythromycin 500 mg PO four times a day for at least 4 weeks or until infiltrate disappears (at least 8 weeks in immunocompromised patients)
  • 1.2 Oral/maintenance therapy (after infiltrate clears): Ciprofloxacin 750 mg PO twice daily OR Erythromycin 500 mg PO four times a day
  • Rickettsia rickettsii [51]
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 200 mg load (severe disease) and then 100 mg PO/IV BID for 3-7 days after defervescence
  • Alternative regimen: Chloramphenicol 500 mg PO QID for 3-7 days after defervescence
  • Pediatric regimen: Doxycycline 2-4 mg/kg/day (up to 200 mg/day) q12h OR Tetracycline 25-50 mg/kg/day PO in 4 divided doses OR Chloramphenicol 50-75 mg/kg/day PO in 4 divided doses

Bacteria – Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli

  • 2.Complications of brucellosis
  • 2.1Spondylitis
  • 2.2 Neurobrucellosis
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 2 mg IV bid for 1 month AND Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 4-5 month AND Rifampicin 600–900 mg/day PO for 4-5 month
  • 2.3 Brucella endocarditis
  • 3. Pregnancy
  • Preferred regimen:Rifampin 900 mg PO qd for 6 weeks
  • NOTE: Adding Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole can be considered, but this option should probably be avoided preceding the 13th week and after the 36th week of gestation because of concern about teratogenicity and kernicterus.
  • 4.For children < 8 yrs of age
  • 1. Human bite/soft tissue infections [54]
  • 1.1 Severe
  • 1.2 Mild
  • 2. Head and neck infections
  • 2.1 Severe
  • 2.2 Mild
  • 3. Endocarditis
  • 1. Chancroid (Haemophilus duchy infection)[55]
  • Preferred Regimen: Azithromycin 1 g PO in a single dose OR Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM in a single dose OR Ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO bid for 3 days OR Erythromycin base 500 mg PO tid for 7 days
  • Note: Patients should be tested for HIV infection at the time chancroid is diagnosed. If the initial test results were negative, a serologic test for syphilis and HIV infection should be performed 3 months after the diagnosis of chancroid.
  • 1.1 Follow-up
  • Patients should be re-examined 3–7 days after initiation of therapy. If treatment is successful, ulcers usually improve symptomatically within 3 days and objectively within 7 days after therapy. If no clinical improvement is evident, the clinician must consider whether 1) the diagnosis is correct, 2) the patient is coinfected with another STD, 3) the patient is infected with HIV, 4) the treatment was not used as instructed, or 5) the H. ducreyi strain causing the infection is resistant to the prescribed antimicrobial.
  • Clinical resolution of fluctuant lymphadenopathy is slower than that of ulcers and might require needle aspiration or incision and drainage, despite otherwise successful therapy. Although needle aspiration of buboes is a simpler procedure, incision and drainage might be preferred because of reduced need for subsequent drainage procedures.
  • 1.2 Management of sex partners
  • Regardless of whether symptoms of the disease are present, sex partners of patients who have chancroid should be examined and treated if they had sexual contact with the patient during the 10 days preceding the patient’s onset of symptoms.
  • 1.3 Pregnancy
  • Ciprofloxacin presents a low risk to the fetus during pregnancy, with a potential for toxicity during breastfeeding. Alternative drugs should be used during pregnancy and lactation.
  • 1.4 HIV Infection
  • Persons with HIV infection who have chancroid should be monitored closely because they are more likely to experience treatment failure and to have ulcers that heal slowly. Persons with HIV infection might require repeated or longer courses of therapy, and treatment failures can occur with any regimen.
  • Neisseria gonorrhoeae, treatment[56]
  • 1. Gonococcal infections in adolescents and adults
  • 1.1 Uncomplicated gonococcal infections of the cervix, urethra, and rectum
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM in a single dose AND Azithromycin 1 g PO in a single dose
  • Alternative regimen: Cefixime 400 mg PO in a single dose AND Azithromycin 1 g PO in a single dose (if ceftriaxone is not available)
  • 1.2 Uncomplicated gonococcal infections of the pharynx
  • 1.2.1 Management of sex partners
  • Expedited partner therapy: Cefixime 400 mg PO in a single dose AND Azithromycin 1 g PO in a single dose
Note (1): Recent sex partners (i.e., persons having sexual contact with the infected patient within the 60 days preceding onset of symptoms or gonorrhea diagnosis) should be referred for evaluation, testing, and presumptive dual treatment.
Note (2): If the patient’s last potential sexual exposure was >60 days before onset of symptoms or diagnosis, the most recent sex partner should be treated.
Note (3): To avoid reinfection, sex partners should be instructed to abstain from unprotected sexual intercourse for 7 days after they and their sexual partner(s) have completed treatment and after resolution of symptoms, if present.
  • 1.2.2 Allergy, intolerance, and adverse reactions
Note: Use of ceftriaxone or cefixime is contraindicated in persons with a history of an IgE-mediated penicillin allergy (e.g., anaphylaxis, Stevens Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis).
  • 1.2.3 Pregnancy
  • 1.2.4 Suspected cephalosporin treatment failure
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM in a single dose AND Azithromycin 1 g PO in a single dose
  • Alternative regimen (1): Gemifloxacin 320 mg PO single dose AND Azithromycin 2 g PO single dose (when isolates have elevated cephalosporin MICs)
  • Alternative regimen (2): Gentamicin 240 mg IM single dose AND Azithromycin 2 g PO single dose (when isolates have elevated cephalosporin MICs)
  • Alternative regimen (3): Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM as a single dose AND Azithromycin 2 g PO as a single dose (failure after treatment with cefixime and azithromycin)
Note: Treatment failure should be considered in: (1) persons whose symptoms do not resolve within 3–5 days after appropriate treatment and report no sexual contact during the post-treatment follow-up period; (2) persons with a positive test-of-cure (i.e., positive culture ≥ 72 hours or positive NAAT ≥ 7 days after receiving recommended treatment) when no sexual contact is reported during the post-treatment follow-up period; (3) persons who have a positive culture on test-of-cure (if obtained) if there is evidence of decreased susceptibility to cephalosporins on antimicrobial susceptibility testing, regardless of whether sexual contact is reported during the post-treatment follow-up period.
  • 1.3 Gonococcal conjunctivitis
Note: Consider one-time lavage of the infected eye with saline solution.
  • 1.3.1 Management of sex partners
  • Patients should be instructed to refer their sex partners for evaluation and treatment.
  • 1.4 Disseminated gonococcal infection
  • 1.4.1 Arthritis and arthritis-dermatitis syndrome
  • 1.4.2 Gonococcal meningitis and endocarditis
  • 2. Gonococcal infections among neonates
  • 2.1 Ophthalmia neonatorum caused by N. gonorrhoeae
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 25-50 mg/kg IV or IM in a single dose, not to exceed 125 mg
  • 2.1.1 Management of mothers and their sex partners
  • Mothers of infants with ophthalmia neonatorum caused by N. gonorrhoeae should be evaluated, tested, and presumptively treated for gonorrhea, along with their sex partner(s).
  • 2.2 Disseminated gonococcal infection and gonococcal scalp abscesses in neonates
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 25-50 mg/kg/day IM/IV qd for 7 days OR Cefotaxime 25 mg/kg IV /IM q12h for 7 days.
Note (1): The duration of treatment is 10-14 days if meningitis is documented.
Note (2): Ceftriaxone should be administered cautiously to hyperbilirubinemic infants, especially those born prematurely.
  • 2.2.1 Management of mothers and their sex partners
  • Mothers of infants who have DGI or scalp abscesses caused by N. gonorrhoeae should be evaluated, tested, and presumptively treated for gonorrhea, along with their sex partner(s).
  • 2.3 Neonates born to mothers who have gonococcal infection
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 25-50 mg/kg IM/IV in a single dose, not to exceed 125 mg
  • 2.3.1 Management of mothers and their sex partners
  • Mothers who have gonorrhea and their sex partners should be evaluated, tested, and presumptively treated for gonorrhea.
  • 3. Gonococcal infections among infants and children
  • 3.1 Infants and children who weigh ≤ 45 kg and who have uncomplicated gonococcal vulvovaginitis, cervicitis, urethritis, pharyngitis, or proctitis
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 25-50 mg/kg IM/IV in a single dose, not to exceed 125 mg
  • 3.2 Children who weigh > 45 kg and who have uncomplicated gonococcal vulvovaginitis, cervicitis, urethritis, pharyngitis, or proctitis
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM in a single dose AND Azithromycin 1g PO in a single dose
  • Alternative regimen: Cefixime 400 mg PO single dose AND Azithromycin 1 g PO single dose.(If ceftriaxone is not available)
  • 3.3 Children who weigh ≤ 45 kg and who have bacteremia or arthritis
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 50 mg/kg (maximum dose: 1 g) IM/IV q24h for 7 days
  • 3.4 Children who weigh > 45 kg and who have bacteremia or arthritis
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 1 g IM/IV q24h for 7 days
  • Meningococcal Meningitis or Bacteremia [57]
  • Antimicrobials:
  • Preferred regimen : Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q24h OR Cefotaxime 2 g IV q4-6h for 7-10 days.
  • Alternatives regimen (1): Chloramphenicol 4-6 g/day for 7-10 days
  • Alternatives regimen (2): Penicillin 18-24 MU/day IV
  • Alternatives regimen (3): Ampicillin 12 g/day IV
  • Alternatives regimen (4): Aztreonam 6-8 g/day IV OR moxifloxacin 400 mg/day IV.
  • Steroids: Dexamethasone 10 mg IV q6h for 2-4 days starting before or with first dose.

Bacteria – Spirochetes

  • Lyme disease
  • 1. Early Lyme Disease
  • 1.1 Erythema migrans
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 100 mg twice per day for 10-21 days OR Amoxicillin 500 mg 3 times per day for 14-21 days OR Cefuroxime axetil 500 mg twice per day for 14-21 days
  • Alternatie regimen: : Azithromycin 500 mg PO per day for 7–10 days OR Clarithromycin 500 mg PO twice per day for 14–21 days (if the patient is not pregnant) OR Erythromycin 500 mg PO 4 times per day for 14–21 days
  • Pediatric regimen (1): (children <8 years of age) Amoxicillin 50 mg/kg per day in 3 divided doses [maximum of 500 mg per dose] OR Cefuroxime axetil 30 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses （maximum of 500 mg per dose)
  • Pediatric regimen (2):（children ≥8 years of age）Doxycycline 4 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses（maximum of 100 mg per dose）
  • Pediatric regimen (3): Azithromycin 10 mg/kg per day (maximum of 500 mg per day) OR Clarithromycin 7.5 mg/kg twice per day (maximum of 500 mg per dose) OR Erythromycin 12.5 mg/kg 4 times per day (maximum of 500 mg per dose)
  • 1.2 When erythema migrans cannot be reliably distinguished from community-acquired bacterial cellulitis
  • Preferred regimen: Amoxicillin–clavulanic acid 500 mg 3 times per day;
  • Pediatric regimen；Amoxicillin–clavulanic acid 50 mg/kg per day in 3 divided doses (maximum of 500 mg per dose)
  • 1.3 Lyme meningitis and other manifestations of early neurologic Lyme disease
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 2g once per day IV for 10–28 days
  • Alternative regimen (1): Cefotaxime 2 g IV q8h OR Penicillin G 18–24 million U q4h per day for patients with normal renal function
  • Alternative regimen (2): Doxycycline 200–400 mg per day in 2 divided doses PO for 10–28 days
  • Pediatric regimen (1): Ceftriaxone 50–75 mg/kg per day in a single daily intravenous dose (maximum, 2g)
  • Pediatric regimen (2): Cefotaxime 150–200 mg/kg per day divided into 3 or 4 intravenous doses per day (maximum, 6 g per day)
  • Pediatric regimen (3): Penicillin G 200,000–400,000 units/kg per day (maximum, 18–24 million U per day) divided into doses given intravenously q4h for those with normal renal function
  • Pediatric regimen (4): (≥8 years old) Doxycycline 4–8 mg/kg PO per day in 2 divided doses (maximum, 100–200 mg per dose)
  • 1.4 Lyme carditis
  • Preferred regimen: Ceftriaxone 2g once per day IV for 10–28 days
  • NOTE: patients with advanced heart block, a temporary pacemaker may be required; expert consultation with a cardiologist is recommended; Use of the pacemaker may be discontinued when the advanced heart block has resolved; An oral antibiotic treatment regimen should be used for completion of therapy and for outpatients, as is used for patients with erythema migrans without carditis (see above)
  • 1.5 Borrelial lymphocytoma
  • Preferred regimen: The same regimens used to treat patients with erythema migrans (see above)
  • Late Lyme Disease
  • 1.6 Lyme arthritis
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 100 mg twice per day OR Amoxicillin 500 mg 3 times per day
  • Alternative regimen: Cefuroxime axetil 500 mg twice per day for 28 days
  • Pediatric regimen: Amoxicillin 50 mg/kg per day in 3 divided doses (maximum of 500 mg per dose) OR Cefuroxime axetil 30 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses (maximum of 500 mg per dose) OR (≥8 years of age) Doxycycline 4 mg/ kg per day in 2 divided doses (maximum of 100 mg per dose)
  • NOTE: For patients who have persistent or recurrent joint swelling after a recommended course of oral antibiotic therapy, we recommend re-treatment with another 4-week course of oral antibiotics or with a 2–4-week course of Ceftriaxone IV
  • 1.7 patients with arthritis and objective evidence of neurologic disease
  • 1.8 Late neurologic Lyme disease
  • 1.9 Acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans
  • 2. Post–Lyme Disease Syndromes
  • Preferred regimen: Further antibiotic therapy for Lyme disease should not be given unless there are objective findings of active disease (including physical findings, abnormalities on cerebrospinal or synovial fluid analysis, or changes on formal neuropsychologic testing)
  • 1. Tick-Borne Relapsing Fever [58]
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 100 mg PO twice daily for 5-10 days
  • Alternative regimen: Erythromycin 500 mg PO four times a day for 5-10 days
  • NOTE: If meningitis/encephalitis present, use Ceftriaxone 2 g IV q12h for 14 days
  • 2. Louse-Borne Relapsing Fever
  • 1. Treatment
  • Preferred regimen: Penicillin 1.5 million units IV q6hr for 5-7 days
  • 1.2 Less severe
  • 2. Prophylaxis
  • Leptospira interrogans [61]
  • 1. Syphilis Among non-HIV-Infected Persons[62]
  • 1.1 Primary and Secondary Syphilis
  • Preferred regimen (adult): Benzathine penicillin G 2.4 million units IM in a single dose
  • Preferred regimen (pediatric): Benzathine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg IM, up to the adult dose of 2.4 million units in a single dose
  • 1.2 Latent Syphilis
  • 1.2.1 Early Latent Syphilis
  • Preferred regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 2.4 million units IM in a single dose
  • Pediatric regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg IM, up to the adult dose of 2.4 million units in a single dose
  • 1.2.2 Late Latent Syphilis or Latent Syphilis of Unknown Duration
  • Preferred regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 7.2 million units total, administered as 3 doses of 2.4 million units IM each at 1-week intervalspediatric
  • Pediatric regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg IM, up to the adult dose of 2.4 million units, administered as 3 doses at 1-week intervals (total 150,000 units/kg up to the adult total dose of 7.2 million units)
  • 1.3 Tertiary Syphilis
  • Preferred regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 7.2 million units total, administered as 3 doses of 2.4 million units IM each at 1-week intervals
  • 1.4 Neurosyphilis and ocular syphilis
  • Preferred regimen: Aqueous crystalline penicillin G 18--24 million units per day, administered as 3--4 million units IV every 4 hours or continuous infusion, for 10--14 days
  • Alternative regimen: Procaine penicillin 2.4 million units IM once daily AND Probenecid 500 mg orally four times a day, both for 10--14 days
  • 2. Syphilis Among HIV-Infected Persons
  • 2.1 Primary and Secondary Syphilis Among HIV-Infected Persons
  • Preferred regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 2.4 million units IM in a single dose.
  • 2.2 Latent Syphilis Among HIV-Infected Persons
  • 2.2.1 early latent
  • Preferred regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 2.4 million units IM in a single dose.
  • 2.2.2 late latent
  • Preferred regimen: Benzathine penicillin G at weekly doses of 2.4 million units for 3 weeks.
  • 2.3 Neurosyphilis Among HIV-Infected Persons
  • Preferred regimen: Aqueous crystalline penicillin G 18--24 million units per day, administered as 3--4 million units IV every 4 hours or continuous infusion, for 10--14 days
  • Alternative regimen: Procaine penicillin 2.4 million units IM once daily AND Probenecid 500 mg orally four times a day, both for 10--14 days
  • 3. Syphilis During Pregnancy
  • Preferred regimen: Pregnant women should be treated with the penicillin regimen appropriate for their stage of infection
  • 4. Congenital Syphilis in neonates
  • 4.1 condition 1 : Infants with proven or highly probable disease and (1)an abnormal physical examination that is consistent with congenital syphilis;（2）a serum quantitative nontreponemal serologic titer that is fourfold higher than the mother's titer;¶ or（3）a positive darkfield test of body fluid(s).
  • Preferred regimen: Aqueous crystalline penicillin G 100,000--150,000 units/kg/day, administered as 50,000 units/kg/dose IV every 12 hours during the first 7 days of life and every 8 hours thereafter for a total of 10 days OR Procaine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg/dose IM in a single daily dose for 10 days
  • NOTE: If more than 1 day of therapy is missed, the entire course should be restarted. Data are insufficient regarding the use of other antimicrobial agents (e.g., ampicillin). When possible, a full 10-day course of penicillin is preferred, even if ampicillin was initially provided for possible sepsis. The use of agents other than penicillin requires close serologic follow-up to assess adequacy of therapy. In all other situations, the maternal history of infection with T. pallidum and treatment for syphilis must be considered when evaluating and treating the infant.
  • 4.2 condition 2: Infants who have a normal physical examination and a serum quantitive nontreponemal serologic titer the same or less than fourfold the maternal titer and the (1)mother was not treated, inadequately treated, or has no documentation of having received treatment; (2)mother was treated with erythromycin or another nonpenicillin regimen;†† or (3)mother received treatment < 4 weeks before delivery.
  • Preferred regimen: Aqueous crystalline penicillin G 100,000--150,000 units/kg/day, administered as 50,000 units/kg/dose IV every 12 hours during the first 7 days of life and every 8 hours thereafter for a total of 10 days OR Procaine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg/dose IM in a single daily dose for 10 days OR Benzathine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg/dose IM in a single dose
  • NOTE:If the mother has untreated early syphilis at delivery, 10 days of parenteral therapy can be considered.
  • 4.3 condition 3:Infants who have a normal physical examination and a serum quantitative nontreponemal serologic titer the same or less than fourfold the maternal titer and the (1)mother was treated during pregnancy, treatment was appropriate for the stage of infection, and treatment was administered >4 weeks before delivery and (2)mother has no evidence of reinfection or relapse.
  • Preferred regimen: Benzathine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg/dose IM in a single dose
  • 4.4 condition 4: Infants who have a normal physical examination and a serum quantitative nontreponemal serologic titer the same or less than fourfold the maternal titer and the (1)mother's treatment was adequate before pregnancy and (2)mother's nontreponemal serologic titer remained low and stable before and during pregnancy and at delivery (VDRL <1:2; RPR <1:4).
  • Preferred regimen: No treatment is required; however, benzathine penicillin G 50,000 units/kg as a single IM injection might be considered, particularly if follow-up is uncertain.
  • 5. Congenital Syphilis in infants and children
  • Preferred regimen: Aqueous crystalline penicillin G 50,000 U/kg q4–6h for 10 days

Bacteria – Gram-Negative Bacilli

  • Aeromonas hydrophila[63]
  • 1.Diarrhea
  • Preferred regimen: (consider if not self-limiting, or if severe), Ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO bid.
  • Alternate regimen: TMP-SMX single dose PO bid
Note: High resistance to sulfa agents described in Taiwan and Spain
  • 2.Skin and soft tissue infection
  • 2.1.Mild infection
  • 1.Cat scratch disease
  • 1.1.If extensive adenopathy
  • 2.Retinitis
  • 3.Bacillary angiomatosis
  • 4.Peliosis hepatitis
  • 5.Oroya fever
  • 6.Endocarditis
  • Bordetella pertussis[65]
  • 1.Whooping cough
  • 1.1.Adults
  • 1.2.Infants <6 months of age
  • 1.2.1.Infants <1 month
  • 1.2.2.Infants of 1-5 months of age
  • 1.3.Infants >6 months of age-children
  • Preferred regimen: Azithromycin 10 mg/kg (500 mg max) daily for 5 days OR Clarithromycin 15 mg/kg (1 g daily max)bid for 7 days OR Erythromycin 10mg/kg PO (2g daily max) qid for 14 days OR TMP-SMX 4 mg/40 mg/kg bid for 14 days.
  • Note(1): TMP-SMX should only be used in patients ≥2 mos of age who are allergic or intolerant of macrolides or who have a macrolide-resistant strain.
  • Note(2): Although fluoroquinolones have excellent in vitro sensitivity profiles, clinical experience for B. pertussis is limited.
  • Burkholderia cepacia[66]
  • Burkholderia pseudomallei
  • 1.1.Intial intensive therapy (Minimum of 10-14 days)
  • Preferred regimen : Ceftazidime 50 mg/kg upto 2 g q6h OR Meropenem 25mg/kg upto 1g q8h OR Imipenem 25 mg/kg upto 1g
  • Note : Any one of the three may be combined with TMP-SMX6/30 mg/kg upto 320/1600 mg/kg q12h (recommended for neurologic, bone, joint, cutaneous and prostatic melioidosis)
  • 1.2.Eradication therapy (Minimum of 3months)
  • Preferred regimen : TMP-SMX6/30 mg/kg upto 320/1600 mg/kg q12h
  • Capnocytophaga canimorsus[68]
  • 1.Severe Cellulitis/Sepsis or Endocarditis
  • Preferred regimen
  • 2.Complicated infections or Immunocompromise
  • Preferred regimen : Clindamycin 600 mg IV q8h may be combined with above agents
  • Note (1): Resistance to aztreonam described, and variable susceptibility reported to TMP-SMX and aminoglycosides.
  • Note (2): For endocarditis, alternatives to penicillins not well established, treated for duration of 6 weeks. For non-endocarditis infections, duration not well established, but most authorities recommend at least 14-21 days of therapy.
  • 3.Mild Cellulitis/Dog or Cat Bites
  • 4.Meningitis or brain abscess
  • 5.Prevention
  • Although no firm data supports this recommendation, many clinicians do give prophylaxis for dog and cat bites in asplenic patients with amoxicillin/clavulanate for 7-10 days.
  • Citrobacter freundii
  • Citrobacter koseri
  • Escherichia coli
  • 1.Meningitits
  • 2.Uncomplicated urinary tract infection
Note: For older patients, those with comorbidities (e.g., diabetes mellitus) use 7-10 days course.
  • 3.Pyelonephritis
  • 3.1.Acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis
  • 3.1.Acute pyelonephritis (Hospitalized)
  • 4.Traveler’s diarrhea
  • Preferred regimen : Ciprofloxacin 750 mg PO OD for 1-3 days or other Fluoroquinolones
  • Pediatrics & pregnancy: Azithromycin 10 mg/kg/day single dose OR Ceftriaxone 50 mg/kg/day IV OD for 3 days.
Avoid Fluoroquinolones in Pediatrics and pregnancy.
  • 5.Malacoplakia
  • 6.Bacteremia/Pneumonia
  • Francisella tularensis[69]
  • 1.Tularemia
  • Helicobacter pylori[70]
  • 1.Peptic ulcer disease
  • 1.1.Regimens for Initial Treatment
  • 1.1.1.Triple therapy : PPI(standard dose twice daily) AND Amoxicillin 1 g bid AND Clarithromycin 500 mg bid for 7-14 days
  • 1.1.2.Quadruple therapy: PPI (standard dose twice daily) AND Metronidazole 250 mg q6h AND Tetracycline 500 mg q6h AND Bismuth (dose depends on preparation) for 10-14 days
  • 1.1.3.Sequential therapy: PPI (standard dose twice daily)AND Amoxicillin 1 g bid for 1-5 days followed by PPI (standard dose twice daily)AND Clarithromycin 500 mg bid AND Tinidazole 500 mg bid for 6-10 days
  • 1.2. Second-Line Therapies
  • 1.2.1.Triple therapy: PPI (standard dose twice daily) AND Amoxicillin 1 g bid AND Metronidazole 500 mg bid
  • 1.2.2.Quadruple therapy: PPI (standard dose twice daily)AND Metronidazole 250 mg q6h AND Tetracycline 500 mg q6h AND Bismuth (dose depends on preparation) for 10-14 days
  • 1.2.3.Levofloxacin triple therapy: PPI (standard dose twice daily) AND Amoxicillin 1 g bid AND Levofloxacin 500 mg bid for 10 days
  • 1.2.4.Rifabutin triple therapy: PPI (standard dose twice daily) and Amoxicillin 1 g bid AND Rifabutin 150-300 mg/day for 10 days
  • Klebsiella granulomatis (formly known as Calymmatobacterium granulomatis)
  • 1.Granuloma Inguinale (Donovanosis)[71]
  • Preferred regimen : Azithromycin 1 g PO once a week or 500 mg OD for 3 weeks and until all lesions have completely healed
  • Alternate regimen : Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 3 weeks and until all lesions have completely healed OR Ciprofloxacin 750 mg PO bid for atleast 3 weeks and until all lesions have completely healed OR Erythromycin base 500 mg PO q6h for atleast 3 weeks and until all lesions have completely healed OR Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole one double-strength (160 mg/800 mg) tablet PO bid for atleast 3 weeks and until all lesions have completely healed
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae
  • 1.Severe,nosocomial infection

use carbapenems:Imipenem 500mg IV q6h OR Meropenem 1g IV q8h OR Ertapenem 1g IV q24h OR Doripenem 500mg IV q8h InESBLs,inconsistentactivityseenwithaminoglycosides,fluoroquinolones,andpiperacillin-tazobactam.Avoidcephalosporins

  • Preferred regimen: Levofloxacin 750mg PO/IV OD for 7-10days OR Moxifloxacin 400mg PO/IV OD for 7-10 days OR Azithromycin 500mg PO/IV OD for 7-10days OR Rifampin 300mg PO/IV bid(optional) AND any other agent listed.
  • Alternative regimen: Erythromycin 1g IV q6h and then 500mg PO q6h for 7-10days OR Ciprofloxacin400mg IV q12h then 750mg PO bid 7-10days
  • Pneumonia
  • Morganella morganii[76]
  • Preferred regimen : Imipenem 500mg IV q6h OR Meropenem 1.0g IV q8h (adjustdose if necessary for renalfunction).
  • Note (1): Carbapenems are considered first line therapy due to inducible cephalosporinases, and presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in some isolates.
  • Note (2): Duration of treatment for UTI(generallycomplicated) is 7days and Duration of treatment for bacteremia is 14days.
  • Note (3): Tigecycline is not reliably effective
  • Alternative Regimen (1) : Cefepime 2.0 g IV q8-12h OR Ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO/400mg IV q12h OR Piperacillin 3g IV q6h OR Ticarcillin 3g IV q4h
  • Alternative Regimen (2) : Aminoglycosides can be used alone for treatment of UTI,Gentamicin OR Tobramycin 1mg/kg/day IV OR Amikacin 3mg/kg/day
  • Proteus mirabilis[77]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ampicillin 500 mg PO q6h or 2 g IV q6h.
  • Preferred regimen (2): Cefuroxime 250 mg PO bid or 750 mg IV q8h.
  • Preferred regimen (3): Ciprofloxacin 250-500 mg PO bid or 400 mg IV q12h.
  • Preferred regimen (4): Levofloxacin 500 mg PO OD or 500 mg IV q24h.
  • Note: Uncomplicated UTI 3 days, pyelonephritis 7-14 days, complicated UTI 10-21 days and bacteremia 7-14 days.
  • Indole positive Proteus species[78]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Ceftriaxone 1 g IV q24h.
  • Preferred regimen (2): Imipenem 500 mg IV q6h.
  • Preferred regimen (3): Ciprofloxacin 400 mg IV q12h or 250-500 mg PO bid.
  • Preferred regimen (4): Levofloxacin 500 mg IV/PO q24h.


  • Complicated UTI/Bacteremia/Acute prostatitis

OR Gentamicin OR Tobramycin acceptable if susceptible but many species are resistant.

  • Note (1) : Duration of treatment for (UTI)is 7days common or 3-5days after defervescence or control/elimination of complicating factors (e.g.,removal of foreign material catheter).
  • Note (2) : Duration of treatment for (bacteremia)is 10-14days or 3-5days after defervescence or control/elimination of complicatingfactors.
  • Note (3) : Duration for acute prostatitis(2wks), shorter than chronic prostatitis(4-6wks)
  • Alternative regimen : TMP-SMX(Bactrim)DS1 PO q12h for 10-14days OR TMP 5-10 mg/kg/day IV q6h.
  • Serratia marcescens[80]
  • 1.Bacteremia,Pneumonia or SeriousInfections
  • 2.Endocarditis
  • Preferred regimen : Choice dictated by sensitivities. 4to6-week duration of parenteral therapy.
  • 3.Osteomyelitis
  • Preferred regimen : Choice dictated by sensitivity profile. Treat for 6-12wks depending upon response.Use IV treatment until stable/clinically improved(10-14daysmin)then may convert to PO therapy if appropriate
  • 4.UTI
  • Preferred regimen : Ciprofloxacin 250mg PO bid or 400mg IV q12h OR Levofloxacin 250mg PO everyday or 500mg IV q24h
  • Note : Fluoroquinolones often sensitive but in seriously ill patient consider empiric coverage with two drugs(e.g.,beta-lactam and aminoglycoside OR FQ AND Carbapenem)until susceptibilities known.

Ciprofloxacin 250mg PO bid or 400mg IV q12h OR Levofloxacin 250mg PO everyday or 500mg IV q24h

  • Stenotrophomonas maltophilia

Bacteria – Atypical Organisms

  • 1. Atypical pneumonia caused by Chlamydophila pneumoniae [81]
  • 1.1 Adult
  • Preferred regimen (1): Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 14-21 days
  • Preferred regimen (2): Tetracycline 250 mg PO qid for 14-21 days
  • Preferred regimen (3): Azithromycin 500 mg PO as a single dose, followed by 250 mg PO qd for 4 days
  • Preferred regimen (4): Clarithromycin 500 mg PO bid for 10 days
  • Preferred regimen (5): Levofloxacin 500 mg IV or PO qd for 7 to 14 days
  • Preferred regimen (6): Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO qd for 10 days.
  • 1.2 Pediatric
  • Preferred regimen (1):Erythromycin suspension,PO 50 mg/kg/day for 10 to 14 days
  • Preferred regimen (2):Clarithromycin suspension, 15 mg/kg/day for 10 days
  • Preferred regimen (3): Azithromycin suspension, PO 10 mg/kg once on the first day, followed by 5 mg/kg qd daily for 4 days
  • 2.Upper respiratory tract infection[82]
  • Bronchitis
  • Antibiotic therapy for C. pneumoniae is not required.
  • Pharyngitis
  • Antibiotic therapy for C. pneumoniae is not required.
  • Sinusitis
  • Antibiotic therapy is advisable if symptoms remain beyond 7-10 days.
  • 1 Chlaymydial infections '[83]
  • 1.1 Chlamydial Infections in Adolescents and Adults
  • Preferred regimen : Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 7 days OR Azithromycin 1 g PO in a single dose
  • Alternative regimen (1): Erythromycin base 500 mg PO qid for 7 days OR Erythromycin ethylsuccinate 800 mg PO qid for 7 days
  • Alternative regimen (2): Levofloxacin 500 mg PO qd for 7 days OR Ofloxacin 300 mg PO bid for 7 days.
  • Note: Patients should be instructed to refer their sex partners for evaluation, testing, and treatment if they had sexual contact with the patient during the 60 days preceding onset of the patient's symptoms or chlamydia diagnosis.
  • 1.2 Chlamydial Infections in patients with HIV Infection
  • 1.3Pregancy
  • 1.4 Management of sex partners
Note (1): Recent sex partners (i.e., persons having sexual contact with the infected patient within the 60 days preceding onset of symptoms or Chlamydia diagnosis) should be referred for evaluation, testing, and presumptive dual treatment.
Note (2): If the patient’s last potential sexual exposure was >60 days before onset of symptoms or diagnosis, the most recent sex partner should be treated.
Note (3): To avoid reinfection, sex partners should be instructed to abstain from unprotected sexual intercourse for 7 days after they and their sexual partner(s) have completed treatment and after resolution of symptoms, if present
  • 2 Chlamydial infection among neonates
  • 2.1 Ophthalmia Neonatorumcaused by C. trachomatis
  • Preferred regimen :Erythromycin base or ethylsuccinate ,PO 50 mg/kg/ day divided into 4 doses daily for 14 days
  • Alternative regimen : Azithromycin suspension, PO 20 mg/kg /day qd for 3 days
  • Note: The mothers of infants who have chlamydial infection and the sex partners of these women should be evaluated and treated.
  • 2.2Infant Pneumonia
  • Preferred regimen :Erythromycin base or ethylsuccinate PO 50 mg/kg/ day divided into 4 doses daily for 14 days
  • Alternative regimen : Azithromycin suspension, PO 20 mg/kg /day qd for 3 days
  • 3.Chlamydial infection among infants and childern
  • 3.1 Infants and childern who weigh < 45 kg
  • Preferred regimen :Erythromycin base or ethylsuccinate PO 50 mg/kg/ day divided into 4 doses daily for 14 days
  • 3.2 Infants and childern who weigh ≥45 kg but who are aged <8 years
  • 3.3 Infants and childern aged ≥8 years
  • 3. Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV)
  • Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) is caused by C. trachomatis serovars L1, L2, or L3 '[84]
  • Preferred regimen : Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 21 days
  • Alternative regimen: Erythromycin base 500 mg PO qid for 21 days
Note (1): azithromycin 1 g orally once weekly for 3 weeks is probably effective based on its chlamydial antimicrobial activity. Fluoroquinolone-based treatments might also be effective, but extended treatment intervals are likely required.
Note (2): Pregnant and lactating women should be treated with erythromycin. Azithromycin might prove useful for treatment of LGV in pregnancy, but no published data are available regarding its safety and efficacy. Doxycycline is contraindicated in pregnant women.
Note (3): Persons with both LGV and HIV infection should receive the same regimens as those who are HIV negative. Prolonged therapy might be required, and delay in resolution of symptoms might occur.
Note(4): Persons who have had sexual contact with a patient who has LGV within the 60 days before onset of the patient’s symptoms should be examined and tested for urethral, cervical, or rectal chlamydial infection depending on anatomic site of exposure. They should be presumptively treated with a chlamydia regimen ( Azithromycin 1 g PO single dose OR Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 7 days).
  • 1.1 Adult
  • 1.2 Pediatric
  • Preferred regimen: Azithromycin
  • Alternative regimen: fluoroquinolones
  • 1.3 Pregnant Patients
  • Preferred regimen : Azithromycin
  • Alternative regimen: fluoroquinolones
  • 2.Endocarditis in valve replacement patients
  • Preferred regimen : Doxycycline
  • Alternative regimen : fluoroquinolones.
  • 1. Acute Q fever [86]
  • 1.1 Adults:
  • Preferred Regimen: Doxycycline PO 100 mg bid for 14 days
  • 1.2 Children
  • 1.2.1 Children with age ≥8 years:
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 2.2 mg/kg per dose bid for 14 days (maximum 100 mg/dose)
  • 1.2.2 Children with age <8 years with high risk criteria
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 2.2 mg/kg per dose bid for 14 days (maximum: 100 mg/dose)
  • 1.2.3 Children with age < 8 years with mild or uncomplicated illness:
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 2.2 mg/kg per dose bid for 5 days (maximum 100 mg/dose). If patient remains febrile past 5 days of treatment: Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole 4-20 mg/kg bid for 14 days (maximum: 800 mg/dose)
  • 1.3 Pregnant women
  • 2. Chronic Q fever
  • 2.1 Endocarditis or vascular infection
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 100 mg bid and hydroxychloroquine PO 200 mg tid for ≥18 months
  • Note: childern and pregnant women- consultation Recommended
  • 2.2 Noncardiac organ disease
  • 2.3 Postpartumwith serologic profile for chronic Q fever
  • Preferred regimen:Doxycycline PO 100 mg bid and hydroxychloroquine PO 200 mg tid for 12 months
  • Note(1): Women should only be treated postpartum if serologic titers remain elevated >12 months after delivery (immunoglobulin G phase I titer ≥1:1024). Women treated during pregnancy for acute Q fever should be monitored similarly to other patients who are at high risk for progression to chronic disease (e.g., serologic monitoring at 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after delivery)
  • Note(2):Post-Q fever fatigue syndrome- no current recommendation
  • Atypical bacterial pneumonia caused by Legionella [18]
  • Atypical pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae[87]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Azithromycin 500 mg PO day 1 and 250 mg day 2 to 5
  • Preferred regimen (2): Doxycycline 100 mg PO bid for 14 days
  • Preferred regimen (3): Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO qd for 14 days
  • 1. Urethritis and cervicitis[88]
  • Preferred regimen (macrolide-susceptible strains): Azithromycin 1 g PO as a single dose OR Azithromycin 500 mg PO as a dose followed by 250 mg PO qd for 4 days
  • Preferred regimen (for patients with previous treatment failures): Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO qd for 7–14 days
  • 2. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)[89]
  • 3. Specific considerations[90]
  • 3.1 Management of sex partners
  • Sex partners should be managed according to guidelines for patients with nongonococcal urethritis, cervicitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease.
  • 3.2 HIV infection
  • Persons who have an M. genitalium infection and HIV infection should receive the same treatment regimen as those who are HIV negative.

Bacteria – Miscellaneous

  • 1.Bacterial Vaginosis'[91]
  • Gardnerella vaginalis is one of the anaerobic bacteria causing Bacterial Vaginosis,which is a polymicrobial clinical syndrome
  • Preferred regimen: Metronidazole 500 mg PO bid for 7 days OR Metronidazole gel 0.75%, one full applicator (5 g) intravaginally, qd for 5 days OR Clindamycincream 2%, one full applicator (5 g) intravaginally at bedtime for 7 days
  • Alternative regimen: Tinidazole 2 g PO qd for 2 days OR Tinidazole 1 g PO qd for 5 days OR Clindamycin 300 mg PO bid for 7 days OR Clindamycin ovules 100 mg intravaginally once at bedtime for 3 days
  • Note:Clindamycin ovules use an oleaginous base that might weaken latex or rubber products (e.g., condoms and vaginal contraceptive diaphragms). Use of such products within 72 hours following treatment with clindamycin ovules is not recommended.
  • 2.Management of Sex Partners
  • Routine treatment of sex partners is not recommended.
  • 3.Special Considerations
  • 3.1 Allergy, Intolerance, or Adverse Reactions
  • Intravaginal clindamycin cream is preferred in case of allergy or intolerance to metronidazole or tinidazole. Intravaginal metronidazole gel can be considered for women who are not allergic to metronidazole but do not tolerate oral metronidazole. It is advised to avoid consuming alcohol during treatment with nitroimidazoles. To reduce the possibility of a disulfiram-like reaction, abstinence from alcohol use should continue for 24 hours after completion of metronidazole or 72 hours after completion of tinidazole.
  • 3.2 Pregnancy
  • Preferred regimen: Metronidazole 500 mg PO bid for 7 days OR Metronidazole gel 0.75%, one full applicator (5 g) intravaginally, qd for 5 days
  • Note: Tinidazole should be avoided during pregnancy
  • 3.3 HIV Infection
  • Women with HIV who have BV should receive the same treatment regimen as those who do not have HIV infection.

Bacteria – Anaerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli

  • 2. Combination therapy

Fungi

  • 1.Mild to moderate pulmonary blastomycosis
  • Preferred regimen: Itraconazole 200 mg PO once or twice per day for 6–12 months
  • Note: Oral Itraconazole, 200 mg 3 times per day for 3 days and then once or twice per day for 6–12 months, is recommended
  • 2.Moderately severe to severe pulmonary blastomycosis
  • Preferred regimen(1): Lipid amphotericin B (Lipid AmB) 3–5 mg/kg per day for 1–2 weeks AND Itraconazole 200 mg PO bid for 6–12 months
  • Preferred regimen(2): Amphotericin B deoxycholate 0.7–1 mg/kg per day for 1–2 weeks AND Itraconazole 200 mg PO bid for 6–12 months
  • Note: Oral Itraconazole, 200 mg 3 times per day for 3 days and then 200 mg twice per day, for a total of 6–12 months, is recommended
  • 3.Mild to moderate disseminated blastomycosis
  • Preferred regimen: Itraconazole 200 mg PO once or twice per day for 6–12 months
  • Note(1): Treat osteoarticular disease for 12 months
  • Note(2): Oral Itraconazole, 200 mg 3 times per day for 3 days and then 200 mg twice per day, for a total of 6–12 months, is recommended
  • 4.Moderately severe to severe disseminated blastomycosis
  • Preferred regimen(1): Lipid amphotericin B(Lipid AmB) 3–5 mg/kg per day, for 1–2 weeks AND Itraconazole 200 mg PO bid for 6–12 months
  • Preferred regimen(2): Amphotericin B deoxycholate 0.7–1 mg/kg per day, for 1–2 weeks AND Itraconazole 200 mg PO bid for 6–12 months
  • Note: oral Itraconazole, 200 mg 3 times per day for 3 days and then 200 mg twice per day, for a total of 6–12 months, is recommended
  • 5.CNS disease
  • Preferred regimen: Lipid amphotericin B (Lipid AmB) 5 mg/kg per day for 4–6 weeks AND an oral azole for at least 1 year
  • Note(1): Step-down therapy can be with Fluconazole, 800 mg per day OR Itraconazole, 200 mg 2–3 times per day OR voriconazole, 200–400 mg twice per day.
  • Note(2): Longer treatment may be required for immunosuppressed patients.
  • 6.Immunosuppressed patients
  • Preferred regimen(1): Lipid amphotericin B (Lipid AmB), 3–5 mg/kg per day, for 1–2 weeks, AND Itraconazole, 200 mg PO bid for 12 months
  • Preferred regimen(2): Amphotericin B deoxycholate, 0.7–1 mg/kg per day, for 1–2 weeks, AND Itraconazole, 200 mg PO bid for 12 months
  • Note(1): Oral Itraconazole, 200 mg 3 times per day for 3 days and then 200 mg twice per day, for a total of 12 months, is recommended
  • Note(2): Life-long suppressive treatment may be required if immunosuppression cannot be reversed.
  • 7.Pregnant women
  • Preferred regimen: Lipid amphotericin B (Lipid AmB) 3–5 mg/kg per day
  • Note(1): Azoles should be avoided because of possible teratogenicity
  • Note(2): If the newborn shows evidence of infection, treatment is recommended with Amphotericin B deoxycholate, 1.0 mg/kg per day
  • 8.Children with mild to moderate disease
  • Preferred regimen: Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO per day for 6–12 months
  • Note: Maximum dose 400 mg per day
  • 9.Children with moderately severe to severe disease
  • Preferred regimen(1): Amphotericin B deoxycholate 0.7–1 mg/kg per day for 1–2 weeks AND Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO per day to a maximum of 400 mg per day for 6–12 months
  • Preferred regimen(2): Lipid amphotericin B (Lipid AmB) 3–5 mg/kg per day for 1–2 weeks AND Itraconazole 10 mg/kg PO per day to a maximum of 400 mg per day for 6–12 months
  • Note: Children tolerate Amphotericin B deoxycholate better than adults do.

Mycobacteria

  • 1.Limited, localized extrapulmonary disease [94]
  • Preferred regimen: Clarithromycin 500 mg PO twice daily ± Amikacin 10-15 mg/kg/day IV or 25 mg/kg three times weekly for 4 months
  • Alternative regimen (1): Amikacin AND Cefoxitin 12 g/day typically for two weeks until clinical improvement in severe cases
  • Alternative regimen (2): Amikacin AND Imipenem 500 mg IV q6-8h for two weeks until clinical improvement in severe cases
  • NOTE: Osteomyelitis should be treated for as least 6 months; Infected foreign bodies should be removed
  • 2.Pulmonary or serious extrapulmonary disease
  • Preferred regimen: Clarithromycin 500 mg PO twice daily AND Amikacin 15 mg/kg/day IV AND Cefoxitin 2g q4h IV OR Imipenem 1g q6h IV for at least 2-4 months, if limited by adverse effects, then switch toClarithromycin 500 mg PO BID or 1000 mg XR OD OR Azithromycin 250 mg PO OD
  • Alternative regimen(1): Tigecycline 100 mg IV load then 50 mg IV q12h could be substituted as one of the injectables
  • Alternative regimen(2): Linezolid 600 mg PO q12h or 600 mg PO OD AND Clarithromycin could replace parental tx if not tolerated or feasible
  • 2. Disseminated or extensive disease
  • 2.1 monotherapy
  • 2.2 multidrug therapy
  • NOTE: Total treatment duration is 6 months
  • 3. Keratitis (LASIK-related)

Parasites – Intestinal Protozoa

  • 1.Immunocompetent[96]
  • Preferred regimen: No clear benefit
  • 3.HIV and Immunodeficiency[98]
  • Preferred regimen: Effective antiretroviral therapy
  • Note: Nitazoxanide is not licensed for immunodeficient patients
  • 1.Immunocompetent[99]
  • Preferred regimen: No clear benefit
  • 3.HIV and Immunodeficiency[101]
  • Preferred regimen: Effective antiretroviral therapy
  • Note: Nitazoxanide is not licensed for immunodeficient patients
  • Preferred regimen: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole one double-strength tablet PO bid for 7-10 days[102]
  • Alternative regimen(1): Ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO bid for 7 days[103]
  • Alternative regimen(2): Nitazoxanide 500 mg PO bid for 7 days[104]
  • Note(1): One double-strength tablet (160 mg TMP/800 mg SMX) .
  • Note(2): Treatment is continued for 7 days in immunocompetent hosts and for 7 to 10 days in patients with HIV infection.
  • 1.Amebic Liver Abscess[105]
  • 3.Asymptomatic Intestinal Colonization[107]
  • 2.Intestinal (diarrhea)[109]
  • Preferred regimen:
  • Adult: Albendazole 400 mg PO bid for 3 weeks for E. intestinalis
  • Pediatric: Albendazole 15 mg/kg per day divided into 2 daily doses for 7 days for E. intestinalis
  • Note: Fumagillin 20 mg PO tid reported effective for E. bieneusi
  • Preferred regimen: Albendazole 400 mg po bid for 3 weeks

Parasites – Extraintestinal Protozoa

  • 2. Acanthamoeba Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis and Disseminated Disease
  • Preferred regimen: Amphotericin B 1.5 mg/kg /day bid for 3 days; then 1 mg/kg/day for 6 days AND1.5 mg/day intrathecal x 2 days; then 1 mg/day intrathecal qd for 8 days.
  • Note: Investigational drug called miltefosine also available for treatment.
1.T. vaginalis infection [114]
2.T. vaginalis infection in Pregnant and Lactating Women
  • 2.1 Pregnant women
  • Preferred regimen:Metronidazole 2 g PO in a single dose.
  • 2.2 Post-partum and Breastfeeding
  • Preferred regimen:Metronidazole 2 g PO in a single dose.OR Tinidazole 2 g PO in a single dose
  • Note(1): do not breastfeed for 12-24 hrs following Metronidazole and 72 hrs following Tinidazole
  • Note(2)Symptomatic pregnant women, regardless of pregnancy stage, should be tested and considered for treatment. Pregnant women should be advised of the risk and benefits to treatment as infection (definitely) and treatment (possibly)
  • Note(3): Pregnant women with HIV who are treated for T. vaginalis infection should be retested 3 months after treatment.
3.T. vaginalis infection in patients with HIV
4. Persistent or Recurrent Trichomoniasis
  • Treatment Failure
  • Preferred regimen:Metronidazole 500 mg PO bid for 7 days
  • Treatment failure again
  • Preferred regimen:Metronidazole 2 g PO for 7 days OR Tinidazole 2 g PO for 7 days
  • Nitroimidazole-resistant cases
  • Preferred regimen: Tinidazole 2-3 g PO for 14 days

Parasites – Intestinal Nematodes (Roundworms)

----
  • Preferred regimen: Albendazole 400 mg/day PO for 10 days
  • Alternative regimen: Mebendazole 200 mg PO bid for 20 days
----

Parasites – Extraintestinal Nematodes (Roundworms)

  • Adult: Albendazole 400 mg per day PO for 3 to 7 days
  • Pediatric: Albendazole > 2 years 400 mg per day PO for 3 days
  • Note: This drug is contraindicated in children younger than 2 years age.
  • Adult: Ivermectin 200 mcg/kg PO single dose
  • Pediatric: Ivermectin >15 kg give 200 mcg/kg single dose
  • Filariasis
  • 1. Lymphatic filariasis- Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi Brugia timori
  • 2. Cutaneous filariasis- Onchocercia volvulus, Loa loa


  • Onchoceria volvulus cutaneous filariasis (river blindness) treatment[127]
  • Preferred regimen: Ivermectin Single dose of 150mcg/kg po; repeat every 6-12 months until asymptomatic.
  • Alternative regimen: If Ivermectin fails, consider Suramin.
Note (1): Onchocercia and Loa loa may both be present. Check peripheral smear; if Loa loa microfilaria present, treat onchocercia first with Ivermectin before Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) for Loa loa.
Note (2): Retreatment for microfilaremia often necessary q6-12 months as demonstrated by repeat blood smear or antigen testing.
Note (3): Do not use Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) in Onchocerca volvulus due to increased risks of precipitating blindness.
  • Treatment of endosymbiont Wolbachia (bacteria) may help clear infection
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 100 mg qd or bid for 6-8 wks in lymphatic filariasis although effect may be more important for co-infecting pathogens such as Wuchereria or Onchocerca than loaloa.
  • Loa loa cutaneous filariasis (eyeworm disease) treatment[128]
  • Preferred regimen: Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) escalation recommended to reduce reactions on day 1-50 mg, day 2-50 mg tid, day 3-100 mg tid, Days 4-21, 8-10mg/kg/day in 3 divided dose
  • Alternative regimen: Albendazole 200mg po bid for 21 days
Note: If concomitant onchocercia Loa loa, treat oncho first. Ifover 5,000 microfilaria/mL of blood, Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) can cause encephalopathy. Might start with albendazole for few days with or without steroids, then Diethylcarbamazine (DEC).


  • Wuchereria bancrofti lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) treatment[129]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Scaled dose Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) escalation recommended to reduce reactions on day 1-50 mg, day 2-50 mg tid, day 3-100 mg tid, Days 4-14, 2 mg/kg q8h for total of 72 mg over 14 days. (Diethylcarbamazine(DEC) 2 mg/kg PO tid for 12 days (may be accompanied by systemic reaction to dying worms,local reactions include lymphadenitis, transient lymphedema)).
Note: Corticosteroids or antihistamines may be needed to treat allergic reactions that develop as a consequence of dying microfilariae.
  • Preferred regimen (2): Albendazole 400 mg PO single dose regimen AND (Ivermectin 200 mcg/kg PO OR Diethylcarbamazine 6mg/kg) may reduce or suppress microfilariae; however, this will not affect adultworms.
Note (1): Most symptoms with Wuchereria bancrofti are due to the adultworm.
Note (2): Retreatment for microfilaremia often necessary q6-12 months as demonstrated by repeat blood smear or antigen testing.
Note (3): Do not use Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) in Onchocerca volvulus due to increased risks of precipitating blindness.
Note (4): Skin snip technique is skin snips can be obtained using a corneal scleral punch, or more simply a scalpel and needle. The sample must be allowed to incubate for 30 minutes to 2 hrs in saline or culture medium, and then examined for microfilariae that would have migrated from the tissue to the liquid phase of the specimen.
Note (5): Site of infection
5.1 General: filarial fever includes fever, chills, malaise during acute or recurrent episode.
5.2 Lymph:localized lymphadenitis, may be painful(red,warm) or painless, unilateral or bilateral groin swelling. May be due to adult worm or complicating bacterial infection.
5.3 Derm:pruritus,dermatitis,subcutaneous nodules.
5.4 Genital:scrotal or vulvar swelling/ hydrocele; may be able to visualize adult W.bancrofti worm by ultrasound.
5.5 Extremities:unilateral or bilateral swelling, acute or chronic. May be extreme (classic elephantiasis) or mild. May be associated with recurrent bacterial cellulitis (abrupt onset of redness ,fever).
5.6 Lungs:tropical pulmonary eosinophilia (miliary pattern on CXR, nocturnal paroxysmal cough, wheezing, accompanied by marked eosinophilia, responds to DEC, usually amicrofilaremic).
5.7 Renal: chyluria, hematuria (rupture of dilated lymphatics into urinary excretory system). May see weightloss, hypoproteinemia, lymphopenia, anemia.
5.8 Musculoskeletal:acute monoarthritis (knee>ankle) which responds to DEC, tenosynovitis (rare), thrombophlebitis (rare).
Note (6)
Diagnosis 1.serological-antigen detection by commercially available card test ; IgG4 antibody (not filaria species specific and may cross react with other helminths);
Diagnosis 2.special maneuvers DEC provocative days test (induce microfilaremia with dose of DEC); polymerase chain reaction.
Diagnosis 3.skin snips (detect Onchocerca volvulus, Mansonella streptocerca). Ultrasonography can detect adult W.bancrofti worms in scrotal lymphatics.
  • Treatment of endosymbiont Wolbachia (bacteria) may help clear infection
  • Preferred regimen: Doxycycline 100 mg qd or bid for 6-8 wks in lymphatic filariasis although effect may be more important for co-infecting pathogens such as Wuchereria or Onchocerca than loaloa.
  • Brugia malayi, Brugia timori lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) treatment[130]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Scaled dose Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) escalation recommended to reduce reactions on day 1-50 mg, day 2-50 mg tid, day 3-100 mg tid, Days 4-14, 2 mg/kg q8h for total of 72 mg over 14 days. (Diethylcarbamazine(DEC) 2 mg/kg PO tid for 12 days (may be accompanied by systemic reaction to dying worms,local reactions include lymphadenitis, transient lymphedema)).
Note: Corticosteroids or antihistamines may be needed to treat allergic reactions that develop as a consequence of dying microfilariae.
  • Preferred regimen (2): Albendazole 400 mg PO single dose regimen AND (Ivermectin 200 mcg/kg PO OR Diethylcarbamazine 6mg/kg) may reduce or suppress microfilariae; however, this will not affect adultworms.
Note
Diagnosis 1.serological-antigen detection by commercially available card test ; IgG4 antibody (not filaria species specific and may cross react with other helminths);
Diagnosis 2.special maneuvers DEC provocative days test (induce microfilaremia with dose of DEC); polymerase chain reaction.
Diagnosis 3.skin snips (detect Onchocerca volvulus, Mansonella streptocerca). Ultrasonography can detect adult W.bancrofti worms in scrotal lymphatics.
  • 1.1.Visceral toxocariasis[133]
  • Preferred regimen: Albendazole 400 mg PO bid for five days (both adult and pediatric dosage)
  • Alternative regimen: Mebendazole 100-200 mg PO bid for five days (both adult and pediatric dosage)
  • 1.2.Ocular toxocariasis[134]
  • Preferred regimen: First 4 weeks of illness (Prednisone 30-60mg PO q24h AND subtenon triamcinolone 40mg/week) for 2 weeks
  • Preferred regimen: Albendazole 400 mg PO bid for 8 to 14 days OR Mebendazole 200 to 400 mg PO tid for 3 days, then 400 to 500 mg PO tid for 10 days[135]
  • Note(1): Albendazole and Mebendazole are contraindicated during pregnancy and not recommended in children aged 2 years.
  • Note(2): Prednisone administered at a dose of 30 mg/day to 60 mg/day for 10 to 15 days for severe symptoms

Parasites – Trematodes (Flukes)

  • Preferred regimen: Triclabendazole 10 mg/kg PO one dose[140]
  • Note: Two-dose (double-dose) triclabendazole therapy can be given to patients who have severe or heavy Fasciola infections (many parasites) or who did not respond to single-dose therapy.
  • 1. Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, S. intercalatum
  • Preferred regimen: Praziquantel 40 mg/kg per day PO in two divided doses for one day[142]
  • 2. S. japonicum, S. mekongi
  • Preferred regimen: Praziquantel 60 mg/kg per day PO in three divided doses for one day[143]

Parasites – Cestodes (Tapeworms)

  • 1.1 Echinococcus granulosus (hydatid disease) treatment[144]
  • Preferred regimen: Percutaneous aspiration-injection-reaspiration (PAIR) and Albendazole.Before & after drainage:Albendazole ≥60 kg, 400 mg PO bid or <60 kg, 15 mg/kg per day divided bid, with meals. Then: Puncture (P) & needle aspirate (A) cyst content. Instill (I) hypertonic saline (15–30%) or absolute alcohol, wait 20–30 min, then re-aspirate (R) with final irrigation.
Note: Continue Albendazole for 28 days Cure in 96% as comp to 90% patients with surgical resection
  • 1.2 Echinococcus multilocularis (alveolar cyst disease) treatment[145]
  • Preferred regimen: Albendazole ≥60 kg, 400 mg PO bid or <60 kg, 15 mg/kg per day divided bid, with meals.
Note (1): Albendazole efficacy not clearly demonstrated, can try in dosages used for hydatid disease.
Note (2): Wide surgical resection only reliable treatment; technique evolving.


  • Neurocysticercosis treatment (NCC)[146]
  • 1. Larval form of Taenia solium
  • Preferred regimen: Treat Taenia solium intestinal tapeworms, if present, with Praziquante l5-10 mg/kg PO for 1 dose for children & adults.
  • 2. Parenchymal neurocysticercosis
  • Preferred regimen: Patients body weight of ≥60 kg,Albendazole 400mg bid with meals or Patients body weight of 60 kg, Albendazole 15 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses (max. 800 mg/day) AND Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg per day with or without anti-seizure medication] all for 8-30 days
Note : “Viable” cysts by CT/MRI Meta-analysis: treatment associated with cyst resolution, decreased seizures, and decreased seizure recurrence.
  • Alternative regimen: (Praziquantel 100 mg/kg per day in 3 div. doses PO for 1 day, then 50 mg/kg/d in 3 doses and [[Dexamethasone]} ANDDexamethasone 0.1mg/kg per day with or without anti-seizure medication) all for 29 days.
Note (1): Albendazole associated with 46% decrease in seizures.
Note (2): Praziquantel less cysticidal activity.
Note (3): Steroids decrease serum levels of [[Praziquantel].
Note (4): NIH reports Methotrexate at ”20 mg/wk allows a reduction in steroid use.
  • 3. Degenerating cysts
  • Preferred regimen: Patients body weight of ≥60 kg,Albendazole 400mg bid with meals or Patients body weight of 60 kg, Albendazole 15 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses (max. 800 mg/day) AND Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg per day with or without anti-seizure medication] all for 8-30 days
Note (1): Treatment improves prognosis of associated seizures.
Note (2): For dead calcified cysts, no treatment indicated
  • 4. Subarachnoid neurocysticercosis
  • Preferred regimen: (Patients body weight of ≥60 kg,Albendazole 400mg bid with meals or Patients body weight of 60 kg, Albendazole 15 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses (max. 800 mg/day) AND Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg per day with or without anti-seizure medication] all for 8-30 days) AND shunting for hydrocephalus.
Note: Without shunt, 50% died within 9 years.
  • 5. Intraventricular neurocysticercosis
  • Preferred regimen: (Patients body weight of ≥60 kg,Albendazole 400mg bid with meals or Patients body weight of 60 kg, Albendazole 15 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses (max. 800 mg/day) AND Dexamethasone 0.1 mg/kg per day with or without anti-seizure medication] all for 8-30 days) AND perhaps neuroendoscopic removal if obstruction of CSF circulation.
  • Sparganosis (Spirometra mansonoides) treatment [147]
  • Preferred treatment: Surgical resection or ethanol injection of subcutaneous masses
Note: Source for Spirometra mansonoides larval cysts is frogs or snakes

Parasites – Ectoparasites

  • Body lice
  • Pediculus humanus, corporis treatment[148]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Success with Ivermectin in home shelter with 12 mg PO on days 0, 7, & 14
Note (1): No drugs for the patient.
Note (2): Organism lives in and deposits eggs in seams of clothing. Discard clothing; if not possible treat clothes with 1% Malathion powder OR 0.5% Permethrin powder.
  • Head lice::* Pediculus humanus, capitis treatment[149]
  • Preferred regimen: Permethrin 1% lotion apply to shampooed dried hair for 10 min.; repeat in 9-10 days OR Malathion 0.5% lotion (Ovide) apply to dry hair for 8–12hrs, then shampoo. 2 doses 7-9 days apart.
  • Alternative regimen: Ivermectin 200 μg/kg PO once; 3 doses at 7 day intervals reported effective. Malathion 0.5% lotion report that 1–2 20-minutes applications 98% effective.
Note (1):Malathion in alcohol is potentially flammable.
Note (2): Permethrin success in 78%.
Note (3): Extra combing of no benefit.
Note (4): Resistance increasing.No advantage to 5% permethrin.
  • Pubic lice
  • Phthirus pubis treatment[150]
Preferred regimen: Pubic hair with Permethrin 1% lotion OR Malathion 0.5% lotion as for head lice
Alternative regimen: Eyelids: Petroleum jelly applied qid for 10 days OR Yellow oxide of mercury 1% qid for 14 days.


  • Preferred regimen: No medications approved by the FDA are available for treatment[151]
  • Note: Fly larvae need to be surgically removed.
:* Myiasis
  • Fly larvae treatment [152]
  • Preferred treatment (1): Occlude punctum to prevent gas exchange with petrolatum, fingernail polish, makeup cream or bacon.
  • Preferred treatment (2): When larva migrates, manually remove.
Note (1): Myiasis is due to larvae of flies
Note (2): Usually cutaneous/subcutaneous nodule with central punctum.
  • Scabies
  • Sarcoptes scabiei treatment [153]
  • 1. Immunocompetent patisent
  • Preferred regimen: (Primary) Permethrin 5% cream (ELIMITE).
Note (1): Apply entire skin from chin down to and including toes with Permethrin 5% cream. Leave on 8–14hours. Repeat if itching persists for >2-4 wks after treatment or new pustules occur.
Note (2): Safe for children >2 months old.
  • Alternative regimen: Ivermectin 200 μg/kg PO once. As above, second dose if persistent symptoms.
Note (1): Trim fingernails.
Note (2): Reapply to hands after hand washing.
Note (3): Pruritus may persist times 2 weeks after mites gone.
  • Alternative regimen (2): Less effective is Crotamiton 10% cream, apply for 24 hours, rinse off, then reapply for 24 hours.
  • 2. AIDS patients (CD4 <150 per mm3), debilitated or developmentally disabled patients
* preferred regimen (for Norwegian scabies) : Permethrin 5% cream-2 or more applications a week apart may be needed. After each Permethrin dose (days 2-7) apply 6% Sulfur in petrolatum.
Note: Apply entire skin from chin down to and including toes with Permethrin 5% cream. Leave on 8–14hours. Repeat if itching persists for >2-4 wks after treatment or new pustules occur.
  • Alternative regimen: Ivermectin 200 mcg/kg PO once is reported effective; may need 2 or more doses separated by 14 days.
Note: Norwegian scabies in AIDS patients is extensive, crusted. Can mimic psoriasis and not pruritic but highly contagious—isolate.

Viruses

  • 5. Adenovirus treatment [154]
  • 1. In severe cases of pneumonia or post Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
  • Preferred regimen: Cidofovir 5 mg/kg/wk for 2 wks, then q 2 wks AND Probenecid 1.25 gm/M given 3hrs before cidofovir and 3 & 9 hrs after each infusion OR Cidofovir 1 mg/kg IV 3 times/wk.
  • 2. For hemorrhagic cystitis
  • Preferred regimen : Cidofovir (5 mg/kg in 100 mL saline instilled into bladder) intravesical.
Note (1): Adenovirus is the cause of respiratory tract infections including fatal pneumonia in children and young adults and 60% mortality in transplant patients.
Note (2): Adenovirus is frequent cause of cystitis in transplant patients.
Note (3): Adenovirus 14 associated with severe pneumonia in otherwise healthy young adults .Findings include fever, decreases liver enzymes, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, diarrhea, pneumonia, or hemorrhagic cystitis.
note (4): Cidofovir is successful in 3/8 immunosuppressed children and 8 of 10 children with post Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Decrease in virus load predicted response to Cidofovir.
  • 3. Pink eye (viral conjunctivitis)
Note (1): Usually unilateral Adenovirus (types 3 & 7 in children, 8, 11 & 19 in adults)
Note (2): No treatment.
Note (3): If symptomatic, cold artificial tears may help.
Note (4): Highly contagious.
Note (5): Onset of ocular pain and photophobia in an adult suggests associated keratitis—rare.
  • 4.Bronchitis
Infants/children (≤ age 5)
< Age 2: Adenovirus;
Note:Antibiotics indicated only with associated sinusitis or heavy growth on throat culture for S. pneumo., Group A strep, H. influenzae or no improvement in 1 week. Otherwise treatment is symptomatic.


  • Management
  • Spontaneous recovery occurs after acute infection with HBV occurs in 95-99% of previously healthy adults. Antiviral therapy is not therefore likely to improve the rate of recovery and is not required unless the disease is accompanied by a nonhepatic complication such as periarteritis nodosa. In such cases, and in immunocompromised individuals (e.g., those with chronic renal failure), antiviral therapy with lamivudine may be recommended.
  • Full recovery with development of anti-HBs provides long-term protection.
  • Prevention
  • Vaccination (available since the early 1980s) continues to be the best way for dealing with the condition. Hepatitis B is preventable, and universal vaccination is probably best soloution in countries with a high prevalence.
  • Preexposure vaccination [155]:
  • This is especially relevant in high-risk groups. There are a number of recombinant vaccines with similar efficacy, although the dosage may differ — for example:
  • Recombivax HB (10 µg of HBsAg)
  • Child < 11 y with an HbsAg-negative mother: 2.5 µg (babies at birth)
  • Child < 11 y with an HBsAg-positive mother: 5 µg
  • Child 11–19: 5 µg
  • Immunocompetent adult: 10 µg
  • Immunosuppressed person: 40 µg
  • Renal dialysis patient: 40 µg
  • Engerix-B (20 µg of HBsAg)
  • Child < 10 y: 10 µg (babies at birth)
  • Child > 10 y: 20 µg
  • Adult: 20 µg
  • Immunosuppressed person: 40 µg
  • Dialysis patient: 40 µg 4.6.2
  • Postexposure vaccination[156]
  • A combination of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIg), when available, and HBV vaccine is recommended. If HBIg is available (in most countries it is not), it should be given to all children of HBs-positive mothers at the time of delivery. This is particularly important in neonates, in whom an immediate start of postexposure immunization will prevent infection in infants of HBV-infected mothers. It is important to vaccinate within 24 hours. There is no evidence of a protective effect if the vaccine is given more than 7 days after delivery.
  • Direct exposure (percutaneous inoculation or transmucosal exposure) to HBsAg positive body fluid (e.g., needlestick injury):
  • HBIg single intramuscular dose of 0.06 mL/kg (as soon as possible)
  • Followed by a complete course of HBV vaccination (initiated within 7 days)
  • Direct exposure following sexual contact with an individual with HBV:
  • HBIg single intramuscular dose of 0.06 mL/kg (within 14 days; very expensive and not affordable in most places)
  • Accompanied by a complete course of HBV vaccination (do not wait!).

Chronic Hepatitis B

  • Patients with HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B [157]
  • HBV DNA >20,000, ALT <2 times upper limit normal (ULN) [157]
  • Observe; consider treatment when ALT becomes elevated.
  • Consider biopsy in persons 40 years, ALT persistently high normal >2 times upper limit normal (ULN), or with family history of HCC.
  • Consider treatment if HBV DNA >20,000 IU/mL and biopsy shows moderate/severe inflammation or significant fibrosis.
  • HBV DNA >20,000, ALT >2 times upper limit normal (ULN) [157]
  • Preferred regimen(1): Pegylated IFN-alpha 180 mcg weekly SC for 48 weeks
  • Preferred regimen(2): Tenofovir(TDF) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 300 mg q24 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 300 mg q48 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 300 mg q72-96 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance <10 with dialysis give 300 mg once a week or after a total of approximately 12 hours of dialysis
  • If creatinine clearance <10 without dialysis there is no recommendation
  • Note: duration of treatment is minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion
  • Preferred regimen(3): Entecavir(ETV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 give 0.5 mg PO daily for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 1 mg PO daily for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine for minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion.
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 0.25 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q48 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.5 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 48 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine for minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion.
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 0.15 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q 72 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.3 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 72 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine for minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion.
  • If creatinine clearance <10 or hemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis give 0.05 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q7 days for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.1 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 7 days for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine for minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion.
  • Note: duration of treatment is minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion
  • Alternative regimen(1): Interferon alpha(IFNα) 5 MU daily or 10 MU thrice weekly SC for 16 weeks
  • Alternative regimen(2): Lamivudine(LAM) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 100 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 50 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 15–29 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 25 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 5-14 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 15 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance <5 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 10 mg PO qd
  • The recommended dose of lamivudine for persons coinfected with HIV is 150mg PO twice daily.
  • Note: duration of treatment is minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion
  • Alternative regimen(3): Adefovir(ADV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 10 mg PO daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 10 mg PO every other day
  • If creatinine clearance 10–19 10 mg PO every third day
  • If hemodialysis patients give 10 mg PO every week following dialysis
  • Note: duration of treatment is minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion
  • Alternative regimen(4): Telbivudine(LdT)Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 600 mg PO once daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 600 give mg PO once every 48 hours
  • If creatinine clearance <30 (not requiring dialysis) give 600 mg PO once every 72 hours
  • If End-stage renal disease give 600 mg PO once every 96 hours after hemodialysis
  • Note: duration of treatment is minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion
  • Notes:
  • Observe for 3-6 months and treat if no spontaneous HBeAg loss.
  • Consider liver biopsy prior to treatment if compensated.
  • Immediate treatment if icteric or clinical decompensation.
  • Interferon alpha(IFNα)/ pegylated interferon-alpha(peg-IFNα), Lamivudine(LAM), Adefovir(ADV), Entecavir(ETV), tenofovir disoproxil fumarate(TDF) or telbivudine(LdT) may be used as initial therapy.
  • Adefovir(ADV) not preferred due to weak antiviral activity and high rate of resistance after 1st year.
  • Lamivudine(LAM) and Telbivudine(LdT) not preferred due to high rate of drug resistance.
  • End-point of treatment – Seroconversion from HBeAg to anti-HBe.
  • Interferon alpha(IFNα) non-responders / contraindications to IFNα change to Tenofovir(TDF)/Entecavir(ETV).
  • Children with elevated ALT greater than 2 times normal [157]
  • Preferred regimen(1): Interferon alpha(IFNα) 6 MU/m2 SC thrice weekly with a maximum of 10 MU
  • Preferred regimen(2): Lamivudine(LAM) 3 mg/kg/d PO with a maximum of 100 mg/d.
  • Patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B [157]
  • HBV DNA >20,000 IU/mL and elevated ALT >2 times normal
  • Preferred regimen(1): Pegylated IFN-alpha 180 mcg weekly SC for 1 year
  • Preferred regimen(2): Tenofovir(TDF) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 300 mg q24 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 300 mg q48 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 300 mg q72-96 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance <10 with dialysis give 300 mg once a week or after a total of approximately 12 hours of dialysis
  • If creatinine clearance <10 without dialysis there is no recommendation
  • Note: duration of treatment is more than 1 year
  • Preferred regimen(3): Entecavir(ETV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 give 0.5 mg PO daily for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 1 mg PO daily for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 0.25 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q48 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.5 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 48 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 0.15 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q 72 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.3 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 72 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine
  • If creatinine clearance <10 or hemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis give 0.05 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q7 days for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.1 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 7 days for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • Note: duration of treatment is more than 1 year
  • Alternative regimen(1): Interferon alpha(IFNα) 5 MU daily or 10 MU thrice weekly SC for 1 year
  • Alternative regimen(2): Lamivudine(LAM) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 100 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 50 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 15–29 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 25 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 5-14 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 15 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance <5 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 10 mg PO qd
  • The recommended dose of lamivudine for persons coinfected with HIV is 150mg PO twice daily.
  • Note: duration of treatment is more than 1 year
  • Alternative regimen(3): Adefovir(ADV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 10 mg PO daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 10 mg PO every other day
  • If creatinine clearance 10–19 10 mg PO every third day
  • If hemodialysis patients give 10 mg PO every week following dialysis
  • Note: duration of treatment is more than 1 year
  • Alternative regimen(4): Telbivudine(LdT)Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 600 mg PO once daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 600 give mg PO once every 48 hours
  • If creatinine clearance <30 (not requiring dialysis) give 600 mg PO once every 72 hours
  • If End-stage renal disease give 600 mg PO once every 96 hours after hemodialysis
  • Note: duration of treatment is more than 1 year
  • Notes:


  • HBV DNA >2,000 IU/mL and elevated ALT >1-2 times normal [157]
  • Consider liver biopsy and treat if liver biopsy shows moderate/severe necroinflammation or significant fibrosis.
  • HBV DNA <2,000 IU/mL and ALT < upper limit normal (ULN) [157]
  • Observe, treat if HBV DNA or ALT becomes higher.
  • +/- HBeAg and detectable HBV DNA with Cirrhosis [157]
  • Compensated Cirrhosis and HBV DNA >2,000
  • Preferred regimen(1): Lamivudine(LAM) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 100 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 50 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 15–29 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 25 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 5-14 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 15 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance <5 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 10 mg PO qd
  • The recommended dose of lamivudine for persons coinfected with HIV is 150mg PO twice daily.
  • Preferred regimen(2): Adefovir(ADV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 10 mg PO daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 10 mg PO every other day
  • If creatinine clearance 10–19 give 10 mg PO every third day
  • If hemodialysis patients give 10 mg PO every week following dialysis
  • Preferred regimen(3): Entecavir(ETV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 give 0.5 mg PO daily for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 1 mg PO daily for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 0.25 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q48 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.5 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 48 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 0.15 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q 72 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.3 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 72 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance <10 or hemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis give 0.05 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q7 days for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.1 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 7 days for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • Preferred regimen(4): Telbivudine(LdT) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 600 mg PO once daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 600 give mg PO once every 48 hours
  • If creatinine clearance <30 (not requiring dialysis) give 600 mg PO once every 72 hours
  • If End-stage renal disease give 600 mg PO once every 96 hours after hemodialysis
  • Preferred regimen(5): Tenofovir(TDF) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 300 mg q24 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 300 mg q48 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 300 mg q72-96 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance <10 with dialysis give 300 mg once a week or after a total of approximately 12 hours of dialysis
  • If creatinine clearance <10 without dialysis there is no recommendation
  • Notes:
  • LAM and LdT not preferred due to high rate of drug resistance.
  • ADV not preferred due to weak antiviral activity and high risk of resistance after 1st year.
  • These patients should receive long-term treatment. However, treatment may be stopped in HBeAg-positive patients if they have confirmed HBeAg seroconversion and have completed at least 6 months of consolidation therapy and in HBeAg-negative patients if they have confirmed HBsAg clearance.
  • Compensated Cirrhosis and HBV DNA <2,000
  • Consider treatment if ALT elevated.
  • Decompensated Cirrhosis
  • Preferred regimen(1): Tenofovir(TDF) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 300 mg q24 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 300 mg q48 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 300 mg q72-96 hrs
  • If creatinine clearance <10 with dialysis give 300 mg once a week or after a total of approximately 12 hours of dialysis
  • If creatinine clearance <10 without dialysis there is no recommendation
  • Preferred regimen(2): Entecavir(ETV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 give 0.5 mg PO daily for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 1 mg PO daily for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 0.25 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q48 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.5 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 48 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance 10–29 give 0.15 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q 72 hr for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.3 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 72 hr for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • If creatinine clearance <10 or hemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis give 0.05 mg PO qd OR 0.5 mg PO q7 days for patients with no prior Lamivudine treatment, and 0.1 mg PO qd OR 1 mg PO q 7 days for patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine.
  • Lamivudine(LAM) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 100 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 50 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 15–29 give 100 mg PO first dose, then 25 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance 5-14 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 15 mg PO qd
  • If creatinine clearance <5 give 35 mg PO first dose, then 10 mg PO qd
  • The recommended dose of lamivudine for persons coinfected with HIV is 150mg PO twice daily.
  • Adefovir(ADV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 10 mg PO daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 10 mg PO every other day
  • If creatinine clearance 10–19 give 10 mg PO every third day
  • If hemodialysis patients give 10 mg PO every week following dialysis
  • Telbivudine(LdT) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 600 mg PO once daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 600 give mg PO once every 48 hours
  • If creatinine clearance <30 (not requiring dialysis) give 600 mg PO once every 72 hours
  • If End-stage renal disease give 600 mg PO once every 96 hours after hemodialysis
  • Adefovir(ADV) Adjustment of Adult Dosage in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance:
  • If creatinine clearance >50 or normal renal function give 10 mg PO daily
  • If creatinine clearance 30–49 give 10 mg PO every other day
  • If creatinine clearance 10–19 give 10 mg PO every third day
  • If hemodialysis patients give 10 mg PO every week following dialysis
  • Notes:
  • Coordinate treatment with transplant center.
  • Refer for liver transplant.
  • Life-long treatment is recommended.
  • +/- HBeAg and undetectable HBV DNA with Cirrhosis [157]
  • Compensated Cirrhosis: Observe
  • Uncompensated Cirrhosis: Refer for liver transplant
  • Most cases of acute hepatitis C are asymptomatic and seldom diagnosed. Nonetheless, acute hepatitis C represents an opportunity to offer effective therapy. Acute hepatitis C is usually diagnosed under three circumstances: documented seroconversion, known exposure (eg, needle-stick exposure) and acute, clinical hepatitis.
  • There has been a high rate of spontaneous clearance of virus following acute hepatitis C, which was more than 50% in some studies. The younger the age of the infection, the more likely is spontaneous clearance of the virus. Icteric hepatitis predicts spontaneous clearance with a high accuracy. Clearance usually occurs within 14 weeks of exposure. Most patients clear virus within 12 weeks. However, a single negative HCV RNA is insufficient to confirm clearance, and the test should be repeated at least once.
  • Because seroconversion is unpredictable, treatment should be considered in all patients. Treatment is most effective when started before 12 weeks. Sustained virological response (SVR) rates of greater than 90% have been described using pegylated interferon (PEG IFN) monotherapy.
  • Recommendations:
  • Patients with acute, icteric hepatitis C can be observed for up to 12 weeks to determine whether spontaneous clearance occurs. If clearance has not occurred, treatment should be initiated by 12 weeks.
  • In patients with acute, nonicteric hepatitis C, the likelihood of spontaneous clearance is lower, so treatment should start soon after diagnosis.
  • Treatment is with PEG IFN-alpha monotherapy. Genotypes 2 and 3 should be treated for 12 weeks, and genotype 1 should be treated for 24 weeks.
  • Chronic Hepatitis C
  • Treatment regimens for chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 1 [158]
  • Treatment regimens for genotype 1a:
  • Preferred regimen(1): Daily fixed-dose combination of Ledipasvir 90 mg AND Sofosbuvir 400 mg for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 1a infection
  • Preferred regimen(2): Daily fixed-dose combination of Paritaprevir 150 mg AND Ritonavir 100 mg AND Ombitasvir 25 mg plus twice-daily dosed Dasabuvir 250 mg AND weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) ([1000 mg <75 kg] to [1200 mg >75 kg]) for 12 weeks (no cirrhosis) OR 24 weeks (cirrhosis) is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 1a infection.
  • Preferred regimen(3): Daily Sofosbuvir 400 mg plus Simeprevir 150 mg ± weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) ([1000 mg <75 kg] to [1200 mg >75 kg]) for 12 weeks (no cirrhosis) or 24 weeks (cirrhosis) is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 1a infection.
  • Treatment regimens for genotype 1b:
  • Preferred regimen(1): Daily fixed-dose combination of Ledipasvir 90 mg AND Sofosbuvir 400 mg for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 1b infection.
  • Preferred regimen(2): Daily fixed-dose combination of Paritaprevir 150 mg AND Ritonavir 100 mg AND Ombitasvir 25 mg plus twice-daily dosed Dasabuvir 250 mg for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 1b infection. The addition of weight-based RBV (1000 mg [<75kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) is recommended in patients with cirrhosis.
  • Preferred regimen(3): Daily Sofosbuvir 400 mg plus Simeprevir 150 mg for 12 weeks (no cirrhosis) or 24 weeks (cirrhosis) is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 1b infection.
  • Treatment regimens for chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 2 [159]
  • Preferred regimen: Daily sofosbuvir 400 mg AND weight-based RBV (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 2 infection. Extending treatment to 16 weeks is recommended in patients with cirrhosis.
  • Treatment regimens for chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 3 [160]
  • Preferred regimen: Daily sofosbuvir (400 mg) and weight-based RBV (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 24 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 3 infection.
  • Alternative regimen: Daily sofosbuvir 400 mg and weight-based RBV (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) plus weekly PEG-IFN for 12 weeks is an acceptable regimen for IFN-eligible, treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 3 infection.
  • Treatment regimens for chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 4
  • Preferred regimen(1): Daily fixed-dose combination of Ledipasvir 90 mg AND Sofosbuvir 400 mg for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 4 infection.
  • Preferred regimen(2): Daily fixed-dose combination of Paritaprevir 150 mg AND Ritonavir 100 mg AND Ombitasvir 25 mg AND weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 4 infection.
  • Preferred regimen(3): Daily Sofosbuvir 400 mg AND weight-based RibavirinRBV (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 24 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 4 infection.
  • Alternative regimen(1): Daily Sofosbuvir 400 mg AND weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) plus weekly PEG-IFN for 12 weeks is an acceptable regimen for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 4 infection.
  • Alternative regimen(2): Daily Sofosbuvir 400 mg plus Simeprevir 150 mg ± weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 12 weeks is an acceptable regimen for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 4 infection.
  • Treatment regimens for chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 5 [161]
  • Preferred regimen: Daily Sofosbuvir 400 mg AND weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) plus weekly PEG-IFN for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 5 infection.
  • Alternative regimen: Weekly PEG-IFN plus weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) for 48 weeks is an alternative regimen for IFN-eligible, treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 5 infection.
  • Treatment regimens for chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 6 [162]
  • Preferred regimen: Daily fixed-dose combination of Ledipasvir 90 mg AND Sofosbuvir 400 mg for 12 weeks is recommended for treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 6 infection.
  • Alternative regimen: Daily Sofosbuvir 400 mg AND weight-based Ribavirin(RBV) (1000 mg [<75 kg] to 1200 mg [>75 kg]) plus weekly PEG-IFN for 12 weeks is an alternative regimen for IFN-eligible, treatment-naive patients with HCV genotype 6 infection.
  • 1.First Clinical Episode of Genital Herpes[164]
  • Preferred Regimens: Acyclovir 400 mg PO tid for 7–10 days OR Acyclovir 200 mg PO five times a day for 7–10 daysOR Valacyclovir 1 g PO bid for 7–10 daysORFamciclovir 250 mg PO tid for 7–10 days
  • Note:Treatment can be extended if healing is incomplete after 10 days of therapy.
  • 2.Established HSV-2 Infection
  • 3. Severe Disease (disseminated infection, pneumonitis, or hepatitis) or CNS complications (e.g., meningoencephalitis).
  • Preferred Regimens: Acyclovir 5–10 mg/kg IV q8h for 2–7 days or until clinical improvement is observed, followed by oral antiviral therapy to complete at least 10 days of total therapy. HSV encephalitis requires 21 days of intravenous therapy. Impaired renal function warrants an adjustment in acyclovir dosage.
  • 4. Special Considerations
  • 4.1HIV Infection
  • 4.1.1 Daily Suppressive Therapy in Persons with HIV
  • Preferred Regimens: Acyclovir 400–800 mg PO bid /tid ORValacyclovir 500 mg PO bid ORFamciclovir 500 mg PO bid
  • 4.1.2 Episodic Infection in Persons with HIV
  • Preferred Regimens: Acyclovir 400 mg PO tid for 5–10 days OR Valacyclovir 1 g PO bid for 5–10 days OR Famciclovir 500 mg PO bid for 5–10 days
  • Note:For severe HSV disease, initiating therapy with Acyclovir 5–10 mg/kg IV every 8 hours might be necessary.
  • 4.2.Genital Herpes in Pregnancy
  • suppressive therapy of pregnant women with recurrent genital herpes *
  • Preferred Regimens: Acyclovir 400–800 mg PO bid /tid ORValacyclovir 500 mg PO bid
  • Note:Treatment recommended starting at 36 weeks of gestation.
  • 4.3Neonatal Herpes
  • known or suspected neonatal herpes: Acyclovir 20 mg/kg IV q 8 h
  • Note(1):treatment for 14 days if disease is limited to the skin and mucous membranes, or
  • Note(2):treatment for 21 days for disseminated disease and that involving the central nervous system.
  • 4.4 Acyclovir-resistant genital herpes
  • Preferred Regimens:Foscarnet 40–80 mg/kg IV q8 h until clinical resolution is attained
  • Alternative Regimens: Cidofovir 5 mg/kg IV once weekly might also be effective.
  • Alternative Regimens:Imiquimod topical preparations should be applied to the lesions qd for 5 consecutive days.
  • 4.5Management of Sex Partners
  • Preferred Regimens: Acyclovir 400 mg PO tid for 7–10 days OR Acyclovir 200 mg PO five times a day for 7–10 daysOR Valacyclovir 1 g PO bid for 7–10 daysOR Famciclovir 250 mg PO tid for 7–10 days
  • Note:The sex partners of persons who have genital herpes can benefit from evaluation and counseling. Symptomatic sex partners should be evaluated and treated
  • 4.6 Allergy, Intolerance, and Adverse Reactions
  • Allergic and other adverse reactions to oral acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famciclovir are rare. Desensitization to acyclovir has been described.
  • 1.Preferred regimen for External Anogenital Warts (i.e., penis, groin, scrotum, vulva, perineum, external anus, and perianus)
  • 1.1 Patient-Applied::Imiquimod 3.75% or 5% cream ORPodofilox 0.5% solution or gel OR Sinecatechins 15% ointment
  • 1.2 Provider-Administered:Cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen or cryoprobe OR Surgical removal either by tangential scissor excision, tangential shave excision, curettage, laser,or electrosurgery OR Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) or Bichloroacetic acid (BCA) 80%-90% solution
  • Note(1):Many persons with external anal warts also have intra-anal warts. Thus, persons with external anal warts might benefit from an inspection of the anal canal by digital examination, standard anoscopy, or high-resolution anoscopy.
  • Note(2):Might weaken condoms and vaginal diaphragms.
  • 2.Alternative Regimens for External Genital Warts
  • 2.1 Urethral Meatus Warts
  • Regimens :Cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen OR Surgical removal
  • 2.2Vaginal Warts
  • Regimens:Cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen. OR Surgical removal OR TCA or BCA 80%–90% solution
  • Note: The use of a cryoprobe in the vagina is not recommended because of the risk for vaginal perforation and fistula formation
  • 2.3 Cervical Warts
  • Regimen: Cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen OR Surgical removal OR TCA or BCA 80%–90% solution
  • Note: Management of cervical warts should include consultation with a specialist.For women who have exophytic cervical warts, a biopsy evaluation to exclude high-grade SIL must be performed before treatment is initiated.
  • 2.4 Intra-anal Warts
  • Regimens :Cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen OR Surgical removalOR TCA or BCA 80%–90% solution
  • Note:Management of intra-anal warts should include consultation with a specialist.
  • 3. Specific considerations
  • 3.1. Follow-up
  • Most anogenital warts respond within 3 months of therapy. Factors that might affect response to therapy include immunosuppression and treatment compliance. In general, warts located on moist surfaces or in intertriginous areas respond best to topical treatment. A new treatment modality should be selected when no substantial improvement is observed after a complete course of treatment or in the event of severe side effects; treatment response and therapy-associated side effects should be evaluated throughout the course of therapy.
  • 3.2 Management of sex partners
  • Persons should inform current partner(s) about having genital warts because the types of HPV that cause warts can be passed on to partners. Partners should receive counseling messages that partners might already have HPV despite no visible signs of warts, so HPV testing of sex partners of persons with genital warts is not recommended.
  • 3.3 Pregnancy
  • Podofilox (podophyllotoxin), podophyllin, and sinecatechins should not be used during pregnancy. Imiquimod appears to pose low risk but should be avoided until more data are available.
  • Cesarean delivery is indicated for women with anogenital warts if the pelvic outlet is obstructed or if vaginal delivery would result in excessive bleeding.
  • Pregnant women with anogenital warts should be counseled concerning the low risk for warts on the larynx of their infants or children (recurrent respiratory papillomatosis).
  • 3.4 HIV infection
  • Data do not support altered approaches to treatment for persons with HIV infection.
  • Squamous cell carcinomas arising in or resembling anogenital warts might occur more frequently among immunosuppressed persons, therefore requiring biopsy for confirmation of diagnosis for suspicious cases
  • 3.5 High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions
  • Biopsy of an atypical wart might reveal HSIL or cancer of the anogenital tract. In this instance, referral to a specialist for treatment is recommended.
  • Note:Patients with severe disease may have diarrhea and may not absorb oseltamivir efficiently
  • 2 Patients with Avian Influenza who have diarrhea and malabsorption
  • Preferred regimen:Zanamivir10 mg inhaled bid for minimum 5 days OR Peramivir600 mg IV as a single dose for1 day
  • Note(1)Preliminary evidence demonstrates that neuraminidase inhibitor can reduce the duration of viral replication and improve survival among patients with avian influenza. In cases of suspected avian influenza, one of the following 3 neuraminidase inhibitors should be administered as soon possible, preferably within 48 hours of symptom onset.
  • Note(2)The use of corticosteroids is not recommended.
  • Note(3): Physicians may consider increasing either the recommended daily dose and/or the duration of treatment in cases of severe disease.
  • Note(4):The use of amantadine is not recommended as most H5N1 and H7N9 avian influenza viruses are resistant to it.[166]
  • Note(5):Supportive care is also an important cornerstone of the care of patients with avian influenza. Considering the severity of the illness and the possible complications, patients may require fluid resuscitation, vasopressors, intubation and ventilation, paracentesis, hemodialysis or hemofiltration, and parentral nutrition.
  • Preferred regimen:
  • Alternative Regimen(1)
  • Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor-Based Regimens:
  • Preferred regimen:
  • Alternative Regimen
  • Protease Inhibitor-Based Regimen
  • Preferred regimen:
  • Alternative Regimen(1)
  • Alternate Regimen(2)
  • Other Regimen Options
  • NNRTI-Based Regimen
  • Efavirenz 600mg AND Abacavir 600 mg/Lamivudine—only for patients who are HLA-B*5701 negative and with pre-treatment HIV RNA <100,000 copies/mL.
  • Other Regimens When TDF or ABC Cannot be Used
  • 2. Pre-exposure prophylaxis(PrEP)
Daily, continuing, oral doses of Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate 300mg/Emtricitabine 200 mg, ≤90-day supply.
Note:
People with high risk behaviour such as men who have sex with men, intravenous drug abusers, HIV-positive sexual partner, recent bacterial STI, high number of sex partners, history of inconsistent or no condom use, commercial sex work, people in high-prevalence area or network are advised to take pre-exposure prophylaxis of drugs.
Follow-up visits at least every 3 months to provide the following: HIV test, medication adherence counseling, behavioral risk reduction support, side effect assessment, STI symptom assessment, pregnancy testing.
At 3 months and every 6 months thereafter, assess renal function.
Every 6 months, test for bacterial STIs.
  • 3. Post- Exposure Prophylaxis
Preferred HIV PEP regimen
Raltegravir 400 mg BID + Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate 300mg/Emtricitabine 200 mg 1 QD
  • A non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) based regimen:
  • Alternate

Infant antiretroviral prophylaxis for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

  • Preferred regimen:
  • Dose based on gestational age at birth and weight, initiated as soon after birth as possible and preferably within 6 to 12 hours of delivery
  • ≥35 weeks gestation at birth: 4 mg/kg/dose orally (or, if unable to tolerate oral agents, 3 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours
  • ≥30 to <35 weeks gestation at birth: 2 mg/kg/dose orally (or 1.5 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours, advanced to 3 mg/kg/dose orally (or 2.3 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours at age 15 days
  • <30 weeks gestation at birth: 2 mg/kg/dose orally (or 1.5 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours, advanced to 3 mg/kg/dose orally (or 2.3 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours after age four weeks.
  • Alternate regimen
  • Dose based on birth weight, initiated as soon after birth as possible
  • Birth weight 1.5 to 2 kg: 8 mg/dose orally
  • Birth weight >2 kg: 12 mg/dose orally

AND

Zidovudine (ZDV)

  • Dose based on gestational age at birth and weight, initiated as soon after birth as possible and preferably within 6 to 12 hours of delivery
  • ≥35 weeks gestation at birth: 4 mg/kg/dose orally (or, if unable to tolerate oral agents, 3 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours
  • ≥30 to <35 weeks gestation at birth: 2 mg/kg/dose orally (or 1.5 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours, advanced to 3 mg/kg/dose orally (or 2.3 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours at age 15 days
  • <30 weeks gestation at birth: 2 mg/kg/dose orally (or 1.5 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours, advanced to 3 mg/kg/dose orally (or 2.3 mg/kg/dose IV) every 12 hours after age four weeks


References

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  2. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  3. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  4. ↑ Liu, Catherine; Bayer, Arnold; Cosgrove, Sara E.; Daum, Robert S.; Fridkin, Scott K.; Gorwitz, Rachel J.; Kaplan, Sheldon L.; Karchmer, Adolf W.; Levine, Donald P.; Murray, Barbara E.; J Rybak, Michael; Talan, David A.; Chambers, Henry F.; Infectious Diseases Society of America (2011-02-01). "Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 52 (3): –18-55. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq146. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 21208910.
  5. ↑ Tunkel, Allan R.; Hartman, Barry J.; Kaplan, Sheldon L.; Kaufman, Bruce A.; Roos, Karen L.; Scheld, W. Michael; Whitley, Richard J. (2004-11-01). "Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 39 (9): 1267–1284. doi:10.1086/425368. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 15494903.
  6. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  7. ↑ Kasper, Dennis (2015). Harrison's principles of internal medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Education. ISBN 978-0071802154.
  8. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  9. ↑ Darouiche, Rabih O. (2006-11-09). "Spinal epidural abscess". The New England Journal of Medicine. 355 (19): 2012–2020. doi:10.1056/NEJMra055111. ISSN 1533-4406. PMID 17093252.
  10. ↑ Liu, Catherine; Bayer, Arnold; Cosgrove, Sara E.; Daum, Robert S.; Fridkin, Scott K.; Gorwitz, Rachel J.; Kaplan, Sheldon L.; Karchmer, Adolf W.; Levine, Donald P.; Murray, Barbara E.; J Rybak, Michael; Talan, David A.; Chambers, Henry F.; Infectious Diseases Society of America (2011-02-01). "Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 52 (3): –18-55. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq146. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 21208910.
  11. ↑ Liu, Catherine; Bayer, Arnold; Cosgrove, Sara E.; Daum, Robert S.; Fridkin, Scott K.; Gorwitz, Rachel J.; Kaplan, Sheldon L.; Karchmer, Adolf W.; Levine, Donald P.; Murray, Barbara E.; J Rybak, Michael; Talan, David A.; Chambers, Henry F.; Infectious Diseases Society of America (2011-02-01). "Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 52 (3): –18-55. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq146. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 21208910.
  12. ↑ Liu, Catherine; Bayer, Arnold; Cosgrove, Sara E.; Daum, Robert S.; Fridkin, Scott K.; Gorwitz, Rachel J.; Kaplan, Sheldon L.; Karchmer, Adolf W.; Levine, Donald P.; Murray, Barbara E.; J Rybak, Michael; Talan, David A.; Chambers, Henry F.; Infectious Diseases Society of America (2011-02-01). "Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 52 (3): –18-55. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq146. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 21208910.
  13. ↑ Azari, Amir A.; Barney, Neal P. (2013-10-23). "Conjunctivitis: a systematic review of diagnosis and treatment". JAMA. 310 (16): 1721–1729. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.280318. ISSN 1538-3598. PMC 4049531. PMID 24150468.
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  15. ↑ Mogayzel PJ, Naureckas ET, Robinson KA, Mueller G, Hadjiliadis D, Hoag JB; et al. (2013). "Cystic fibrosis pulmonary guidelines. Chronic medications for maintenance of lung health". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 187 (7): 680–9. PMID 23540878.
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  17. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC; et al. (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clin Infect Dis. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083.
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  22. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  23. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  24. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  25. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  26. ↑ Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler VG, Bolger AF, Levison ME; et al. (2005). "Infective endocarditis: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, American Heart Association: endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America". Circulation. 111 (23): e394–434. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.165564. PMID 15956145.
  27. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  28. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  29. ↑ Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, Kaufman BA, Roos KL, Scheld WM; et al. (2004). "Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis". Clin Infect Dis. 39 (9): 1267–84. doi:10.1086/425368. PMID 15494903.
  30. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  31. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  32. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Hendricks KA, Wright ME, Shadomy SV, Bradley JS, Morrow MG, Pavia AT; et al. (2014). "Centers for disease control and prevention expert panel meetings on prevention and treatment of anthrax in adults". Emerg Infect Dis. 20 (2). doi:10.3201/eid2002.130687. PMC 3901462. PMID 24447897.
  34. ↑ Meaney-Delman D, Zotti ME, Creanga AA, Misegades LK, Wako E, Treadwell TA; et al. (2014). "Special considerations for prophylaxis for and treatment of anthrax in pregnant and postpartum women". Emerg Infect Dis. 20 (2). doi:10.3201/eid2002.130611. PMC 3901460. PMID 24457117.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Bradley JS, Peacock G, Krug SE, Bower WA, Cohn AC, Meaney-Delman D; et al. (2014). "Pediatric anthrax clinical management". Pediatrics. 133 (5): e1411–36. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-0563. PMID 24777226.
  36. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  37. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  38. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  39. ↑ Andrews, J. M.; Wise, R. (2002-06). "Susceptibility testing of Bacillus species". The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 49 (6): 1040–1042. ISSN 0305-7453. PMID 12039902. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  41. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  42. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  43. ↑ "q fever".
  44. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  45. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  46. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  47. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  48. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  49. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  50. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  51. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  52. ↑ Corbel, Michael (2006). Brucellosis in humans and animals. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 9241547138.
  53. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  54. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  55. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  56. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  57. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  58. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  59. ↑ LastName, FirstName (2003). Human leptospirosis guidance for diagnosis, surveillance and control. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 9241545895.
  60. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  61. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  62. ↑ Workowski KA, Bolan GA (2015). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports : Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Recommendations and Reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. PMID 26042815.
  63. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  64. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  65. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  66. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  67. ↑ Wiersinga WJ, Currie BJ, Peacock SJ (2012). "Melioidosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 367 (11): 1035–44. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1204699. PMID 22970946.
  68. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  69. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  70. ↑ Lua error: expandTemplate: template "citation error" does not exist.
  71. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  72. ↑ Mukara, B. K.; Munyarugamba, P.; Dazert, S.; Löhler, J. (2014-07). "Rhinoscleroma: a case series report and review of the literature". European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology: official journal of the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies (EUFOS): affiliated with the German Society for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. 271 (7): 1851–1856. doi:10.1007/s00405-013-2649-z. ISSN 1434-4726. PMID 23904142. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  73. ↑ de Pontual, Loïc; Ovetchkine, Philippe; Rodriguez, Diana; Grant, Audrey; Puel, Anne; Bustamante, Jacinta; Plancoulaine, Sabine; Yona, Laurent; Lienhart, Pierre-Yves; Dehesdin, Danièle; Huerre, Michel; Tournebize, Régis; Sansonetti, Philippe; Abel, Laurent; Casanova, Jean Laurent (2008-12-01). "Rhinoscleroma: a French national retrospective study of epidemiological and clinical features". Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 47 (11): 1396–1402. doi:10.1086/592966. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 18947330.
  74. ↑ Gaafar, Hazem A.; Gaafar, Alaa H.; Nour, Yasser A. (2011-04). "Rhinoscleroma: an updated experience through the last 10 years". Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 131 (4): 440–446. doi:10.3109/00016489.2010.539264. ISSN 1651-2251. PMID 21198342. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  75. ↑ Mukara, B. K.; Munyarugamba, P.; Dazert, S.; Löhler, J. (2014-07). "Rhinoscleroma: a case series report and review of the literature". European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology: official journal of the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies (EUFOS): affiliated with the German Society for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. 271 (7): 1851–1856. doi:10.1007/s00405-013-2649-z. ISSN 1434-4726. PMID 23904142. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  76. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  77. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  78. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  79. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  80. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  81. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  82. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  83. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  84. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  85. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  86. ↑ "q fever".
  87. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  88. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  89. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  90. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  91. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  92. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  93. ↑ Chapman SW, Dismukes WE, Proia LA, Bradsher RW, Pappas PG, Threlkeld MG; et al. (2008). "Clinical practice guidelines for the management of blastomycosis: 2008 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America". Clin Infect Dis. 46 (12): 1801–12. doi:10.1086/588300. PMID 18462107.
  94. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  95. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  96. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  97. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  98. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  99. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  100. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  101. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  102. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  103. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  104. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  105. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  106. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  107. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  108. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  109. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  110. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  111. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  112. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  113. ↑ Template:Citeweb
  114. ↑ "trichomoniasis".
  115. ↑ "Parasites - Ascariasis".
  116. ↑ "Parasites - Ascariasis".
  117. ↑ Cross, J. H. (1992-04). "Intestinal capillariasis". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 5 (2): 120–129. ISSN 0893-8512. PMC 358231. PMID 1576584. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  118. ↑ Attia, Rasha A. H.; Tolba, Mohammed E. M.; Yones, Doaa A.; Bakir, Hanaa Y.; Eldeek, Hanan E. M.; Kamel, Shereef (2012-01). "Capillaria philippinensis in Upper Egypt: has it become endemic?". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 86 (1): 126–133. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0321. ISSN 1476-1645. PMC 3247121. PMID 22232463. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  119. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  120. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  121. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  122. ↑ Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  123. ↑ "WGO Practice Guideline Management of Strongyloidiasis" (PDF).
  124. ↑ "Parasites - Trichuriasis".
  125. ↑ "Parasites - Zoonotic Hookworm".
  126. ↑ "Parasites - Zoonotic Hookworm".
  127. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  128. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  129. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  130. ↑ Bartlett, John (2012). Johns Hopkins ABX guide : diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1449625580.
  131. ↑ "Gnathostomiasis".
  132. ↑ "Gnathostomiasis".
  133. ↑ "Parasites - Toxocariasis".
  134. ↑ Gilbert, David (2015). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808843.
  135. ↑ Gottstein B, Pozio E, Nöckler K (2009). "Epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of trichinellosis". Clin Microbiol Rev. 22 (1): 127–45, Table of Contents. doi:10.1128/CMR.00026-08. PMC 2620635. PMID 19136437.
  136. ↑ "Clonorchis".
  137. ↑ "Clonorchis".
  138. ↑ "Dicrocoeliasis".
  139. ↑ "Dicrocoeliasis".
  140. ↑ "Parasites - Fascioliasis".
  141. ↑ "Parasites - Paragonimiasis".
  142. ↑ "Parasites - Schistosomiasis".
  143. ↑ "Parasites - Schistosomiasis".
  144. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  145. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  146. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  147. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  148. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  149. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  150. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  151. ↑ "Parasites - Myiasis".
  152. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  153. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  154. ↑ Gilbert, David (2014). The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2014. Sperryville, Va: Antimicrobial Therapy. ISBN 978-1930808782.
  155. ↑ "Management of acute viral hepatitis" (PDF).
  156. ↑ "Management of acute viral hepatitis" (PDF).
  157. ↑ 157.0 157.1 157.2 157.3 157.4 157.5 157.6 157.7 157.8 Lok AS, McMahon BJ (2009). "Chronic hepatitis B: update 2009". Hepatology. 50 (3): 661–2. doi:10.1002/hep.23190. PMID 19714720.
  158. ↑ "INITIAL TREATMENT OF HCV INFECTION".
  159. ↑ "INITIAL TREATMENT OF HCV INFECTION".
  160. ↑ "INITIAL TREATMENT OF HCV INFECTION".
  161. ↑ "INITIAL TREATMENT OF HCV INFECTION".
  162. ↑ "INITIAL TREATMENT OF HCV INFECTION".
  163. ↑ Rizzetto M (2013). "Current management of delta hepatitis". Liver Int. 33 Suppl 1: 195–7. doi:10.1111/liv.12058. PMID 23286865.
  164. ↑ Workowski, Kimberly A.; Bolan, Gail A. (2015-06-05). "Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 64 (RR-03): 1–137. ISSN 1545-8601. PMID 26042815.
  165. ↑ Avian Influenza Factsheet. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/avian_influenza/en/ Accessed on April 22, 2015
  166. ↑ WHO guidelines for pharmacological management of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza and other influenza viruses. http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/swineflu/h1n1_use_antivirals_20090820/en/ Accessed on April 22, 2015
  167. ↑ "AIDSinfoNIH".
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