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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Marufa Marium, M.B.B.S[2]

Synonyms and keywords: Cough in kids

Overview

Historical Perspective

  • The word Cough was first derived from the middle English Coughen or old English Cohhian which was primarily composed of the middle Dutch Kochen and the high middle German Kuchen, in early 14th century.

Classification

  • Cough in children may be classified or defined according to the duration of presenting complaints, quality and sound, causes of cough into several groups.[1]:
  • 1 Duration of Presenting complaints: According to the duration of cough, it can be sub classified into three categories.
    • Acute: Cough persists for less than three weeks.
    • Subacute: Cough persists for three to eight weeks.
    • Chronic: Cough persists for more than eight weeks.
  • 2. Nature or Quality and sounds: According to the quality and sound cough can be sub classified in to following categories-
    • Dry or Hacking or Nonproductive.
    • Wet or productive cough.
    • Staccato or short repetitive cough.
    • Whooping or paroxysmal violent or spasmodic cough.
    • Barking cough: Brassy barking or Honking barking.
    • Phlegmy cough.
    • Burning cough.
  • 3. Causes of Cough: Based on causes cough is subdivided into following three sub groups-
    • Normal or expected cough.
    • Specific cough.
    • Non-specific cough.
  • 4. Anatomic classification on causes of cough: Cough can be produced from different anatomical locations. for example-
    • Nose and Paranasal sinuses.
    • Pharynx.
    • Larynx.
    • Trachea and Bronchi.
    • Pulmonary parenchyma.
    • Pleura.
    • Mediastinum.
    • Heart and blood vessels.
    • External ear and Tympanic membrane.
    • Esophagus.
  • 5. Grades of cough: Cough can be graded into four main sub categories-[2]
    • Eutussia or Normal.
    • Hypertussia or Sensitized.
    • Hypotussia or Desensitized.
    • Dystussia or Pathological.
    • Atussia or Absent.

Cough in children can also be classified under infectious (Bacterial, Viral, fungal, Parasitic) or non-infectous categories broadly.

Pathophysiology

  • Cough is natural innate primitive reflex that helps in mucocilliary clearance of foreign particles and secretions from respiratory tracts. It is also a defensive mechanism protecting respiratory airways from aspiration of pathogens, particulates and secretions. A complex arc comprised of neuro-respiratory pathways helps in initiating the cough reflex.[3]
 
 
 
Mechanical and chemical stimulation of cough receptors (Rapidly adapting receptors, slowly adapting receptors or C-fibers) in Respiratory airways
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Afferent pathways: Sensory nerve fibers via Vagus Nerve from ciliated columnar epithelium of upper airways, cardiac and esophageal branches from diaphragm send impulse to central cough center
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Central cough center in upper brain stem medulla and pons send impulse of sequence of phases (Inspiratory, Compressive, Expiratory) for constituting cough
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Efferent pathways: The nucleus retroambigualis sends impulse via phrenic and spinal motor nerves to diaphragm and abdominal and respiratory muscles, the nucleus ambiguous sends impulse to larynx by laryngeal branches of vagus nerve
 
 
 
  • On gross pathology, Bloody, Serous , Mucoid, Rusty, Pink frothy, and Purulent are characteristic findings of sputum produced by coughing.
  • On microscopic histopathological analysis, Pathogens, RBCs, Leukocytes, epithelial celss are characteristic findings of Sputum produced by coughing.

Causes

Causes of cough in children according to duration[4][5][6]:

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cough
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Acute(<3 weeks) •Common Cold
•Allergic Rhinitis
•Bronchitis
•Bronchiolitis
•Asthma
•Whooping Cough
•Influenza
•Croup or Tracheolaryngobronchitis
•Pneumonia
•Irritation by smoking
•Foreign Body
•GERD
 
 
 
 
Subacute(3-8 weeks) •Whooping Cough or Pertussis
•Post infectious Cough
•Bacterial Sinusitis
•Asthma
 
 
 
 
Chronic(>8 weeks) •Upper Airway Cough Syndrome
•Asthma
•Bronchiectasis in Cystic fibrosis and Kartagener Syndrome
•Chronic sinusitis
•Malacia
•Foreign Body
•Nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis
•Respiratory environmental toxins

According to quality and sound of cough in children, the causes can be classified according to following chart.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Dry or Hacking or Nonproductive
 
Sinusitis, Tonsillitis, Pharyngitis, Allergic Rhinitis, GERD, Asthma, Environmental exposure to irritants(pollen, dust, mites, smokes), Post infectious cough.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Wet or productive cough
 
Cystic fibrosis, Bronchiectasis, Bronchiolitis, Tuberculosis, Rhinitis, Postnasal drip, Pneumonia, Emphysema, Acute bronchitis, Asthma
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Causes of Cough based on Nature or quality and sound
 
 
 
 
Staccato or short repetitive cough
 
Chlamydia pneumonia
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Whooping or paroxysmal violent or spasmodic cough
 
Pertussis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Barking cough
 
•Brassy barking: Croup, Tracheomalacia, Laryngitis, Tracheitis
•Honking barking: Psychogenic cough , Tourette syndrome (habit cough)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Stridor
 
Viral Croup, Epiglottis, Bacterial tracheitis, Retropharyngeal and peritonsilar abscess
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Burning cough
 
Bacterial Bronchitis, Irritants
 
 
 
 
 
 

Based on anatomical location the causes of cough in children can be demonstrated into following chart-

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Nose and Paranasal sinuses
 
Rhinitis, Foreign Body, Sinusitis, Nasal polyp, ppHypertrophied inferior turbinate]]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pharynx
 
Pharyngitis, Foreign Body, Irritants
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Larynx
 
Laryngitis, Epiglottis, Tonsillitis, Laryngomalacia, Subglottic stenosis, Foreign body
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Trachea and Bronchi
 
Tracheitis, Croup, Bronchiolitis, Bronchiectasis, Bronchitis, Cystic fibrosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Causes based on anatomic location
 
 
 
 
Pulmonary parenchyma
 
Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Environmental toxin, Respiratory distress syndrome, Aspiration syndrome, Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis, Connective tissue disease, Alveolar capillary dysplasia, Neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia of infancy, Medications, Mutations causing surfactant dysfunction, Emphysema
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pleura
 
Pleurisy, Pneumothorax, Hemothorax, Parapneumonic effusions, Pleural tuberculosis, Congenital hydrothorax and chylothorax
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mediastinum
 
Mediastinitis, Mediastinal Tuberculosis, Thymoma, Thymic hyperplasia, Thymic carcinoma, Neuroblastoma, Ganglioneuroma, Non Hodgkin lymphoma, Sarcoma, Mature teratoma, Endodermal sinus tumor, Hemangioma, Wilms tumor, Lymphangioma
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Heart and blood vessels
 
Congenital heart disease, Valvular heart disease, Heart failure, Myocarditis, Cardiomyopathies, Wegener granulomatosis, Vasculitis, Arteriovenous malformation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
External ear and Tympanic membrane
 
Otitis media and externa, Impaction of foreign body, wax, Myringitis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Esophagus
 
GERD, Tracheoesophageal Fistula
 
 
 
 
 
 

Differentiating Cough from other Diseases

Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical Examination Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Upper airway diseases Epiglottitis[7][8] Abrupt or acute
  • 12−24 hours
 − − − + +
  • Elevated white blood count in CBC
  • Blood culture may show bacterial growth
  • Epiglottal culture in intubated patients may show bacterial growth
  • Enlarge epiglottis (>8 mm), loss of vallecular air space and distended hypopharynx as known as 'Thumb print' sign on lateral neck X−ray may be helpful
  • Normal function
Croup[9] Acute
  • 3−5 days
 + − − + +
  • Clinical diagnosis.
  • Laboratory findings and imaging are not necessary for diagnosis
Pertussis[10][11] Acute
  • Two weeks
 + Whooping sound − + + +
  • Clear chest
  • Normal function
  • Culture
Common Cold[12] Acute
  • 3−10 days
 + − − + −
  • Bacterial culture is not indicated
  • Normal function
  • Clinical diagnosis
Tonsilitis[13][14][15] Acute or Acute Recurrent, Chronic
  • Varies
 +(Mucus from inflamed tissue) −/+ − + Odynophagia, Tachypnea
  • Rapid Antigen Detecting Test
  • Throat Swab Culture
  • EBV Heterophile Antibody Test
  • Monospot Test
  • Complete Blood Count
  • Chest X−Ray shows normal finding. USG may show Peritonsillar abscess.
  • Normal function
  • Rapid Antigen Detecting Test
Seasonal Influenza[16][17] Acute
  • Upper respiratory tract symptoms with fever peaking at three to four days, resolved by seven to ten days.
 − − − +(High grade) +
  • Normal function
  • Clinical diagnosis
Sinusitis[18][19] Acute, Subacute, Chronic, recurrent
  • Acute: Less than 4 weeks
  • Subacute: 4−12 weeks
  • Chronic: More than 12 weeks
  • Recurrent: 4 or more episodes or acute rhinosinusitis per year
 + − − + +
  • Restlessness, Nasal Congestion, Post Nasal Drip, Facial Pain, Rhinorrhea
  • Air−fluid level, mucosal edema and bony erosion of sinus on CT
  • MRI for distinguish the etiology
  • Normal function
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Lower airway Asthma[20][21] Chronic
  • Years
 + Clear mucoid or yellow sputum − − − +
  • Family history
  • Seasonal variation
Bacterial Protracted Bonchitis[22][23] Chronic
  • Atleast four weeks
 +(Purulent) − + +/− +
  • FEV1 < 80%
  • Clinical diagnosis
  • Majority of cases are caused by Streptococci Pneumoniae, Hemophylous Influenza, Staphylococcus aureus
Bronchiectasis[24][25][26] Chronic
  • Months to years
 + Mucopurulent sputum + − − +
  • CT of chest
'Foreign body aspiration[27][28][29] Acute
  • Sudden Onset
 + +/- − +/- +
  • No specific tests
  • Not specific
  • In children <1 year
  • Organic materials in children
Bronchiolitis[30][31] Acute
  • 8−15 days
 + − − + +
  • Rhinorrhoea
  • Cyanosis, Hypoxia
  • Intercostal and subcostal retraction
  • Tachypnea
  • Wheezing
  • Crackles
  • Grunting and Nasal Flaring
  • Clinical diagnosis
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Lung Parenchyma Pneumonia[32][33] Acute
  • Variable
 + Mucopurulent sputum − − + +
  • Not specific
Tuberculosis (TB)[34][35] Chronic
  • More than 2 or 3 weeks
 + + + + +
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Cardiovascular system Cardiac Diease Congenital Heart Disease Acute or Chronic
  • Variable
 + − + − +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Ear Earways Disease Om/OE Acute or Chronic
  • Variable
 + − + − +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Others Psychogenic Tourrette or habitual Acute or Chronic
  • Variable
 + − + − +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Gastrointestinal Upper GI GERD[36][37] Chronic
  • Variable
 + − + − +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
 −−

Epidemiology and Demographics

  • Cough is one of the most common symptoms of children in outpatient department.
  • Ninety percent of acute cough in children is resolved within three weeks. The prevalence of Chronic Cough in children is approximately 5% to 10% in USA according to American Academy of Pediatrics.

Age

  • Cough is more commonly observed among children under 5 years of age.[38]

Gender

  • Boys are more commonly affected with cough than girls.[39]

Race

  • There are racial predilection for certain causes of Cough in children. Asthma is predominant in Blacks and American Indians or Alaska native while Cystic fibrosis, Wegener's granulomatosis are more frequently affecting Caucasians according to American Lung Association.

Risk Factors

  • Common risk factors in the development of Cough in children are-
    • Preterm Birth and delivery by caesarian section.
    • Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
    • Congenital Heart Disease.
    • Age less than 1 year.
    • Maternal Influenza vaccination.
    • Malnutrition.
    • Secondary exposure to tobacco smoke.
    • Air pollutants, Mold, Inadequate ventilation.
    • Immunodeficiencies.
    • Daycare attendance.
    • History of Atopy.
    • Household pets.
    • Low socioeconomic status.

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

  • The majority of patients with acute cough have recovery within three weeks in 90% of cases. Some of cases are progressed to sub-acute and chronic phases. Chronic cough lasts more than eight weeks whereas recurrent cough can affect a child for more than two years with 1-2 weeks duration in each episodes.
  • Early clinical features include frequent episodes of coughing, Runny nose, Sneezing, Low grade fever, Sore Throat, Night Sweats, Arching Back, Irritability, Failure to thrive, Fussiness, Chocking sensation(Foreign body impaction).
  • If left untreated, Cough can cause following complication in children.
  • Prognosis is generally [excellent/good/poor], and the [1/5/10­year mortality/survival rate] of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#%].

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

  • The diagnosis of Causes of Cough is made after a detailed history, presenting complaints and physical examination and laboratory findings in some cases. Cough can be classified according to-
    • Duration.
    • Nature or quality of cough.
    • Etiology.
    • Anatomic location.
    • Grade.

A detailed history focusing on onset of disease, factors worsening the episodes, time of worsening, aleviating factors, amount work of breathing, presence of shortness of breathing, relation with vomiting, food intake, posture, presence of blood, systemic findings(fever, weight loss, hypotension, syncope, vertigo, dizziness, failure to thrive), episodes of chocking, houshold socioeconomic status, family history, drug abuse and smoking in family members, atopy, congenital history. The following sighns are alarming which need further emergent evaluation by the physician.

Symptoms

  • Symptoms of Cough may include the following:

Physical Examination

  • Patients with [disease name] usually appear [general appearance].
  • Physical examination may be remarkable for:
  • [finding 1]
  • [finding 2]
  • [finding 3]
  • [finding 4]
  • [finding 5]
  • [finding 6]

Laboratory Findings

  • There are no specific laboratory findings associated with [disease name].
  • A [positive/negative] [test name] is diagnostic of [disease name].
  • An [elevated/reduced] concentration of [serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other] [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].
  • Other laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an ECG suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name]. However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name].

OR

Echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name]. However, an echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on CT scan suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name]. However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name]. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Imaging modality] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an [imaging modality] suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Other Diagnostic Studies

  • [Disease name] may also be diagnosed using [diagnostic study name].
  • Findings on [diagnostic study name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Treatment

Medical Therapy

  • There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.
  • The mainstay of therapy for [disease name] is [medical therapy 1] and [medical therapy 2].
  • [Medical therapy 1] acts by [mechanism of action 1].
  • Response to [medical therapy 1] can be monitored with [test/physical finding/imaging] every [frequency/duration].

Surgery

  • Surgery is the mainstay of therapy for [disease name].
  • [Surgical procedure] in conjunction with [chemotherapy/radiation] is the most common approach to the treatment of [disease name].
  • [Surgical procedure] can only be performed for patients with [disease stage] [disease name].

Prevention

  • There are no primary preventive measures available for [disease name].
  • Effective measures for the primary prevention of [disease name] include [measure1], [measure2], and [measure3].
  • Once diagnosed and successfully treated, patients with [disease name] are followed-up every [duration]. Follow-up testing includes [test 1], [test 2], and [test 3].

References

  1. ↑ Alsubaie H, Al-Shamrani A, Alharbi AS, Alhaider S (March 2015). "Clinical practice guidelines: Approach to cough in children: The official statement endorsed by the Saudi Pediatric Pulmonology Association (SPPA)". Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2 (1): 38–43. doi:10.1016/j.ijpam.2015.03.001. PMID 30805435.
  2. ↑ Chung KF, Bolser D, Davenport P, Fontana G, Morice A, Widdicombe J (April 2009). "Semantics and types of cough". Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 22 (2): 139–42. doi:10.1016/j.pupt.2008.12.008. PMID 19136069.
  3. ↑ Polverino M, Polverino F, Fasolino M, Andò F, Alfieri A, De Blasio F (June 2012). "Anatomy and neuro-pathophysiology of the cough reflex arc". Multidiscip Respir Med. 7 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/2049-6958-7-5. PMID 22958367.
  4. ↑ "Acute cough in children".
  5. ↑ Kwon NH, Oh MJ, Min TH, Lee BJ, Choi DC (May 2006). "Causes and clinical features of subacute cough". Chest. 129 (5): 1142–7. doi:10.1378/chest.129.5.1142. PMID 16685003.
  6. ↑ Bergamini M, Kantar A, Cutrera R, Interest Group I (2017). "Analysis of the Literature on Chronic Cough in Children". Open Respir Med J. 11: 1–9. doi:10.2174/1874306401711010001. PMID 28553418. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  7. ↑ Abdallah C (July 2012). "Acute epiglottitis: Trends, diagnosis and management". Saudi J Anaesth. 6 (3): 279–81. doi:10.4103/1658-354X.101222. PMC 3498669. PMID 23162404.
  8. ↑ "Epiglottitis, Acute Laryngitis, and Croup".
  9. ↑ Cherry, James D. (2008). "Croup". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (4): 384–391. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp072022. ISSN 0028-4793.
  10. ↑ Bellamy EA, Johnston ID, Wilson AG (1987). "The chest radiograph in whooping cough". Clin Radiol. 38 (1): 39–43. PMID 3816065.
  11. ↑ "Pertussis | Whooping Cough | Clinical | Information | CDC".
  12. ↑ Eccles R (2005). "Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza". Lancet Infect Dis. 5 (11): 718–25. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X. PMID 16253889.
  13. ↑ Stelter K (2014). "Tonsillitis and sore throat in children". GMS Curr Top Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 13: Doc07. doi:10.3205/cto000110. PMC 4273168. PMID 25587367.
  14. ↑ Bartlett A, Bola S, Williams R (2015). "Acute tonsillitis and its complications: an overview". J R Nav Med Serv. 101 (1): 69–73. PMID 26292396.
  15. ↑ Di Muzio F, Barucco M, Guerriero F (December 2016). "Diagnosis and treatment of acute pharyngitis/tonsillitis: a preliminary observational study in General Medicine". Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 20 (23): 4950–4954. PMID 27981538.
  16. ↑ Kumar V (February 2017). "Influenza in Children". Indian J Pediatr. 84 (2): 139–143. doi:10.1007/s12098-016-2232-x. PMID 27641976.
  17. ↑ Kondrich J, Rosenthal M (June 2017). "Influenza in children". Curr Opin Pediatr. 29 (3): 297–302. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000495. PMID 28346272.
  18. ↑ Badr DT, Gaffin JM, Phipatanakul W (September 2016). "Pediatric Rhinosinusitis". Curr Treat Options Allergy. 3 (3): 268–281. doi:10.1007/s40521-016-0096-y. PMC 5193235. PMID 28042527.
  19. ↑ Shahid SK (2012). "Rhinosinusitis in children". ISRN Otolaryngol. 2012: 851831. doi:10.5402/2012/851831. PMC 3671714. PMID 23762621.
  20. ↑ Gelfand EW (May 2009). "Pediatric asthma: a different disease". Proc Am Thorac Soc. 6 (3): 278–82. doi:10.1513/pats.200808-090RM. PMC 2677403. PMID 19387030.
  21. ↑ van Aalderen WM (2012). "Childhood asthma: diagnosis and treatment". Scientifica (Cairo). 2012: 674204. doi:10.6064/2012/674204. PMC 3820621. PMID 24278725.
  22. ↑ Zhang XB, Wu X, Nong GM (March 2020). "Update on protracted bacterial bronchitis in children". Ital J Pediatr. 46 (1): 38. doi:10.1186/s13052-020-0802-z. PMC 7106696 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32228653 Check |pmid= value (help).
  23. ↑ "www.thoracic.org" (PDF).
  24. ↑ Pizzutto SJ, Hare KM, Upham JW (2017). "Bronchiectasis in Children: Current Concepts in Immunology and Microbiology". Front Pediatr. 5: 123. doi:10.3389/fped.2017.00123. PMC 5447051. PMID 28611970.
  25. ↑ Redding GJ (February 2009). "Bronchiectasis in children". Pediatr Clin North Am. 56 (1): 157–71, xi. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2008.10.014. PMID 19135586.
  26. ↑ Bouyahia O, Essadem L, Matoussi N, Gharsallah L, Fitouri Z, Mrad Mazigh S, Boukthir S, Bellagah I, Ben Becher S, Sammoud El Gharbi A (November 2008). "Etiology and outcome of bronchiectasis in children: a study of 41 patients". Tunis Med. 86 (11): 996–9. PMID 19213492.
  27. ↑ Fraga Ade M, Reis MC, Zambon MP, Toro IC, Ribeiro JD, Baracat EC (February 2008). "Foreign body aspiration in children: clinical aspects, radiological aspects and bronchoscopic treatment". J Bras Pneumol. 34 (2): 74–82. doi:10.1590/s1806-37132008000200003. PMID 18345450.
  28. ↑ Aslan N, Yıldızdaş D, Özden Ö, Yöntem A, Horoz ÖÖ, Kılıç S (2019). "Evaluation of foreign body aspiration cases in our pediatric intensive care unit: Single-center experience". Turk Pediatri Ars. 54 (1): 44–48. doi:10.14744/TurkPediatriArs.2019.60251. PMC 6559979 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31217709.
  29. ↑ Ayed AK, Jafar AM, Owayed A (August 2003). "Foreign body aspiration in children: diagnosis and treatment". Pediatr Surg Int. 19 (6): 485–8. doi:10.1007/s00383-003-0965-x. PMID 12736750.
  30. ↑ Friedman JN, Rieder MJ, Walton JM (November 2014). "Bronchiolitis: Recommendations for diagnosis, monitoring and management of children one to 24 months of age". Paediatr Child Health. 19 (9): 485–98. doi:10.1093/pch/19.9.485. PMC 4235450. PMID 25414585.
  31. ↑ Smith DK, Seales S, Budzik C (January 2017). "Respiratory Syncytial Virus Bronchiolitis in Children". Am Fam Physician. 95 (2): 94–99. PMID 28084708.
  32. ↑ Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File Jr TM, Musher DM, Fine MJ (2000). "Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Infectious Diseases Society of America". Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 (2): 347–82. doi:10.1086/313954. PMID 10987697.
  33. ↑ Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM, Musher DM, Niederman MS, Torres A, Whitney CG (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clin. Infect. Dis. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083.
  34. ↑ Perlman DC, el-Sadr WM, Nelson ET, Matts JP, Telzak EE, Salomon N, Chirgwin K, Hafner R (1997). "Variation of chest radiographic patterns in pulmonary tuberculosis by degree of human immunodeficiency virus-related immunosuppression. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). The AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG)". Clin. Infect. Dis. 25 (2): 242–6. PMID 9332519.
  35. ↑ Barnes PF, Verdegem TD, Vachon LA, Leedom JM, Overturf GD (1988). "Chest roentgenogram in pulmonary tuberculosis. New data on an old test". Chest. 94 (2): 316–20. PMID 2456183.
  36. ↑ Kahrilas PJ, Hughes N, Howden CW (2011). "Response of unexplained chest pain to proton pump inhibitor treatment in patients with and without objective evidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease". Gut. 60 (11): 1473–8. doi:10.1136/gut.2011.241307. PMID 21508423.
  37. ↑ Badillo R, Francis D (2014). "Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease". World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 5 (3): 105–12. doi:10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105. PMC 4133436. PMID 25133039.
  38. ↑ Chang AB, Glomb WB (January 2006). "Guidelines for evaluating chronic cough in pediatrics: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 260S–283S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.260S. PMID 16428719.
  39. ↑ "Prevalence of cough throughout childhood: A cohort study".
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