COVID-19 associated pediatric complications

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Harmeet Kharoud M.D.[2]; Abdelrahman Ibrahim Abushouk, MD[3]; Asra Firdous, M.B.B.S.[4]

Overview

  • Pediatric cases of COVID-19 have been reported in children. It ranges from asymptomatic mild cases to Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C). There are less cases of SARS CoV 2 in children compared to adults.[1]

Epidemiology and Demographics

  • Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to CDC during January 22–May 30, the incidence of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population.[2]

Data of children age 1-9 years with the total number of cases 20,458 reported by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30

  • Lowest cumulative incidence being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1)
Data of children with the total number of cases 20,458 reported by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30 [2]
Age
Different comorbidities <9 10-19
Underlying medical condition 2896(14.2%) 7123(14.5%)
Cardiovascular disorders 78(2.7%) 164(2.3%)
Chronic lung disease 363(12.5%) 1285(18%)
Renal disease 21(0.7%) 34(0.5%)
Diabetes 12(0.4%) 34(0.5%)
Liver disease 5(0.2%) 19(0.3%)
Immunicompromised 61(2.1%) 146(2.0%)
Neurological disease 41(1.4%) 113(1.6%)
Total cases in the population 1,320,488 20458 49245














In China, 2.2% of confirmed cases of COVID-19 were among persons aged <19 years old.1 In Italy, 1.2% of COVID-19 cases were among children aged <18 years.2 In Spain, 0.8% of confirmed cases of COVID-19 were among persons aged < 18 years.5

Mode of transmission


Presentations

  • Presentation of COVID-19 is less severe in children as compared to adults.
  • According to CDC, as of April 2, 2020, 1.7% confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in children aged <18 years age among the total number of confirmed cases of COVID-19.
  • Illness severity of COVID-19 in children ranges from asymptomatic to critical.

Symptoms

Clinical Course of COVID-19 in children.

  • Asymptomatic presentation-
    • Children present with no clinical signs or symptoms with normal chest imaging.
    • Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection 4% of children were asymptomatic.
    • According to one study 14.2% of children were asymptomatic. Another study showed 18% of asymptomatic children with COVID-19.
  • Mild Disease
    • Children present with mild symptoms including fever, fatigue, myalgia, cough.
    • Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection 51% of children had a mild disease of COVID-19.[3]
    • A study showed 36.3% of children present with a mild form of the disease.
  • Severe
    • Children present with dyspnea, central cyanosis, hypoxia.[3]
    • Among 2143 children with COVID-19 infection 5% of children had a severe presentation.[3]
    • 2.1% of children present with a severe form of COVID-19 disease.
    • Children with underlying comorbidities are more susceptible to getting severe COVID-19 disease.
  • Critical

Complications

Some of the complications associated with COVID-19 pediatric population are

Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)

  • It is a condition that causes inflammation of some parts of the body like heart, blood vessels, kidneys, digestive system, brain, skin, or eyes.
  • According to recent evidence, it is suggested that children with MISC had antibodies against COVID-19 suggesting children had COVID-19 infection in the past.

Symptoms

Emergency Warning Signs

Diagnosis

Preliminary WHO case definition: Children and adolescents

  • 0–19 years of age with fever >3 days

AND

  • Two of the following:
  1. Rash or bilateral non-purulent conjunctivitis or muco-cutaneous inflammation signs (oral, hands or feet)
  2. Hypotension or shock
  3. Features of myocardial dysfunction, pericarditis, valvulitis, or coronary abnormalities (including ECHO findings or elevated Troponin/NT-proBNP)
  4. Evidence of coagulopathy (by PT, PTT, elevated D-Dimers)
  5. Acute gastrointestinal problems (diarrhea, vomiting, or abdominal pain)

AND

AND

AND

  • Evidence of COVID-19 (RT-PCR, antigen test or serology-positive), or likely contact with patients with COVID-19

Prevention of MIS-C

  • MIS-C can be prevented by reducing the risk of child exposure to COVID-19 infection.

Diagnosis


Most of the children with SARS-CoV-2 infection are either asymptomatic or produce mild symptoms. As asymptomatic patients do not get tested for COVID-19 and are potential carriers for viral transmission, high clinical suspicion is required to prevent such transmissions to a population at risk of developing severe disease. A pediatrician should be cautious to eliminate other causes of respiratory illnesses like seasonal influenza before any diagnostic tests. No diagnostic test is required for a kid with mild illness and no history of exposure to SARS-CoV-2.

Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved real-time Reverse-Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) as the preferred test for diagnosing COVID-19 in children

Lab abnormalities

Studies reportedly showed following lab abnormalities in pediatric patients with COVID-19

Co-infections

Co-infection with other pathogens were reported in 27% of cases. Some common microorganisms associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in children are:

Radiological findings

CT chest is an important diagnostic modality in pediatric patients with COVID-19. Chest CT scans has reportedly shown higher positive rates in suspected patients than RT-PCR. It has better sensitivity. CT chest and a series of chest X-rays can be used to monitor the progression of the disease. Imaging findings reported in the studies are[4]

Children are at increased risk of radiation and its effects, so CT scans and X-rays should be judiciously used in them. It is advised to perform Pulmonary Ultrasonography (USG) in newborns. It has better sensitivity and is safer than CT scans and Chest X-rays.

Management

Management of COVID-19 in pediatric patients depends on the severity of symptoms.

  • Hospital admission and level of care depend on the clinical presentation, supportive care requirement, underlying comorbidities, and availability of health care facilities at home
  • Suspected patients must be isolated at a hospital or home until the diagnosis is excluded
  • After confirming the diagnosis, they should be hospitalized and isolated in the wards maintained for pediatric patients with COVID-19
  • Critical and severe cases require Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission and management

As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the main goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, provide supportive care, prevent and treat complications, treat underlying diseases and secondary infections, and provide organ function support. Following measures are reported to be crucial in the management of COVID-19[5]

Symptomatic treatment and Supportive Care

Fever should be treated with physical cooling and antipyretics. If the body temperature exceeds 38.5C, antipyretic drugs should be started. Drugs that can be used in children are acetaminophen 10-15 mg/kg and ibuprofen 5-10 mg/kg orally.[5]

Respiratory support

Mechanical Ventilation

Low tidal volume mechanical ventilation is preferred to prevent ventilation related lung injury. Criteria for starting mechanical ventilation[5]

OR

OR

Antibiotics

Antibiotics and antifungals help in reducing symptoms and preventing complications of secondary infections[7]

Corticosteroids

Steroids are used in severe cases and to prevent complications[7]. Any of the following criteria must be met before starting corticosteroid therapy in patients with COVID-19[5]. Intravenous methylprednisolone 1-2mg/kg/day used for 3-5 days. Long-term usage is highly discouraged.

  • Rapid progression of the disease as documented from chest imaging and development of ARDS

OR

OR

OR

Anticoagulation therapy

Convalescent plasma therapy

Evidence suggests the use of plasma therapy in children with exacerbations and severe and critical disease.

Immunoglobulin therapy

  • Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) can be used in severe cases[7]
  • Dose of 1g/kg/day for 2days or 400mg/kg/day for 8 days is recommended for children
  • More studies are required to support its efficacy and safety in children with COVID-19

Antiviral therapy

Following are the experimental drugs that are being considered to treat children with COVID-19[8]. Various clinical trials are being conducted on the efficacy and safety of these drugs in children with COVID-19.

Interferon-alpha

Inhaled interferon-alpha was the most commonly used antiviral in patients with COVID-19. Reports suggest that it helps in decreasing the viral load, alleviating symptoms and shortening the disease course.[9][10]

Remdesivir

  • It is a nucleotide analogue that inhibits viral RNA polymerase
  • It was effectively used during Ebola, SARS, and MERS outbreaks
  • It was effective in-vitro against SARS-CoV-2[11]
  • No adverse effects were reported in a newborn treated for Ebola[12]
  • Phase III clinical trial is being conducted on the effectiveness of Remdesivir in treating COVID-19 in adults and children above 12 years of age[13]
  • FDA has approved the emergency use of Remdesivir in treating hospitalized children with severe disease"Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Issues Emergency Use Authorization for Potential COVID-19 Treatment | FDA".

Favipiravir


Prevention


References

  1. <https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/pediatric-hcp.html
  2. 2.0 2.1 Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S; et al. (2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69 (24): 759–765. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2. PMC 7302472 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32555134 Check |pmid= value (help).
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Eastin, Carly; Eastin, Travis (2020). "Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 58 (4): 712–713. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006. ISSN 0736-4679.
  4. de Souza TH, Nadal JA, Nogueira RJN, Pereira RM, Brandão MB (2020). "Clinical manifestations of children with COVID-19: A systematic review". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24885. PMC 7300659 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32492251 Check |pmid= value (help).
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, Zhao D, Jiang Y, Jin R; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts' consensus statement". World J Pediatr. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7. PMC 7090771 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32034659 Check |pmid= value (help).
  6. Sankar J, Dhochak N, Kabra SK, Lodha R (2020). "COVID-19 in Children: Clinical Approach and Management". Indian J Pediatr. 87 (6): 433–442. doi:10.1007/s12098-020-03292-1. PMC 7183927 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32338347 Check |pmid= value (help).
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 Zhang L, Peres TG, Silva MVF, Camargos P (2020). "What we know so far about Coronavirus Disease 2019 in children: A meta-analysis of 551 laboratory-confirmed cases". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24869. PMC 7300763 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32519809 Check |pmid= value (help).
  8. Deniz M, Tapısız A, Tezer H (2020). "Drugs being investigated for children with COVID-19". Acta Paediatr. doi:10.1111/apa.15399. PMC 7300686 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32506621 Check |pmid= value (help).
  9. Wang BX, Fish EN (2019). "Global virus outbreaks: Interferons as 1st responders". Semin Immunol. 43: 101300. doi:10.1016/j.smim.2019.101300. PMC 7128104 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31771760.
  10. Chen L, Shi M, Deng Q, Liu W, Li Q, Ye P; et al. (2020). "Correction: A multi-center randomized prospective study on the treatment of infant bronchiolitis with interferon α1b nebulization". PLoS One. 15 (4): e0231911. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0231911. PMC 7147733 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32275690 Check |pmid= value (help).
  11. Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, Diaz G, Asperges E, Castagna A; et al. (2020). "Compassionate Use of Remdesivir for Patients with Severe Covid-19". N Engl J Med. 382 (24): 2327–2336. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2007016. PMC 7169476 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32275812 Check |pmid= value (help).
  12. Dörnemann J, Burzio C, Ronsse A, Sprecher A, De Clerck H, Van Herp M; et al. (2017). "First Newborn Baby to Receive Experimental Therapies Survives Ebola Virus Disease". J Infect Dis. 215 (2): 171–174. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiw493. PMC 5583641. PMID 28073857.
  13. Campbell CH (1967). "Effect of incubation temperature and serum content in agar overlay on plaque production by foot-and-mouth disease virus". Can J Comp Med Vet Sci. 31 (10): 251–5. PMC 1494743. PMID 04292899.
  14. 14.0 14.1 Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, Chen J, Shu D, Xia J; et al. (2020). "Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study". Engineering (Beijing). doi:10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007. PMC 7185795 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32346491 Check |pmid= value (help).
  15. 15.0 15.1 Bouazza N, Treluyer JM, Foissac F, Mentré F, Taburet AM, Guedj J; et al. (2015). "Favipiravir for children with Ebola". Lancet. 385 (9968): 603–604. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60232-X. PMID 25706078.