Adnexal mass
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sarah Elsayed, MD., MPH.[2]
Synonyms and keywords:
Overview
Historical Perspective
[Disease name] was first discovered by [name of scientist], a [nationality + occupation], in [year]/during/following [event].
The association between [important risk factor/cause] and [disease name] was made in/during [year/event].
In [year], [scientist] was the first to discover the association between [risk factor] and the development of [disease name].
In [year], [gene] mutations were first implicated in the pathogenesis of [disease name].
There have been several outbreaks of [disease name], including -----.
In [year], [diagnostic test/therapy] was developed by [scientist] to treat/diagnose [disease name].
Classification
Adnexal masses are divided into two types based on their origin: gynecological origin and non-gynecological origin. Each group is further subdivided into benign and malignant. [1]
| Gynecological Origin | Benign Ovarian:
- Corpus luteum cyst - Follicular cyst - Luteuma of pregnancy - Mature teratoma - Ovarian torsion - Polycystic ovaries - Mucinous and serous cystadenoma - Theca leutin cyst |
|---|---|
| Malignant Ovarian:
- Borderline tumors - Epithelial carcinoma - Ovarian germ cell tumor - Ovarian Sarcoma - Stromal tumor | |
| Benign Nonovarian:
- Ectopic pregnancy - Endometrioma - Hydrosalpinx - Leiomyoma - Tubo-ovarian abscess | |
| Malignant Nonovarian:
- Endometrial carcinoma - Fallopian tube carcinoma | |
| Non-Gynecological Origin | Benign:
- Appendiceal abscess - Appendicitis - Bladder diverticulum - Diverticular abscess - Nerve sheath tumor - Pelvic kidney - Peritoneal cyst - Ureteral diverticulum |
| Malignant:
- Gastrointestinal carcinoma - Krukenberg tumor - Metastasis - Retroperitoneal sarcoma |
Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of adnexal mass depends on the histological subtype and varies according to age, reproductive status, and location.
- Endometrioma is an ectopic endometrial tissue that bleeds in a single or both ovaries leading to the development of hemorrhagic/ chocolate cyst[2].
- Ovarian tumors most commonly have an epithelial origin, leading to high-grade serous carcinoma in the ovaries, fallopian tubes, or the peritoneum[3]. The second common origin is primordial germ cells developing teratoma ( dermoid cyst), which is the most common benign germ cell tumor in the ovaries, dysgerminomas, mixed germ cell tumors and yolk sac tumors which are malignant[4].
- Krukenberg tumors develop as hematogenous of the colon, breasts, and endometrial tumors to the ovaries and fallopian tubes[5].
- Physiologic cysts, such as follicular cysts, which form due to the failure of formed follicles to rupture, and corpus leutum cysts, which form due to the failure of corpus leutum involution during early pregnancy[6]. Leutoma of pregnancy is the corpus leutum cyst in a solid form rather than cystic[7].
- Tubo-ovarian abscess, hydrosalpinx, pyosalpinx are inflammatory complications of untreated pelvic inflammatory disease[8].
Causes
Adnexal mass is most commonly caused by ovaries and fallopian tubes masses, with etiologies that differ depending on the patient's age and reproductive status. Endometrioma is the most common benign cause of adnexal mass. While, epithelial carcinoma in the ovaries is the most common malignant cause. [9]
Differentiating ((Page name)) from other Diseases
[Disease name] must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [clinical feature 1], [clinical feature 2], and [clinical feature 3], such as [differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].
OR
[Disease name] must be differentiated from [[differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].
Epidemiology and Demographics
At the age of 35, the prevalence of adnexal mass in the United States of America is approximately 153 per 100,000 women. However, Women of all ages can develop adnexal mass with no racial preference [10].
Risk Factors
There are no established risk factors for [disease name].
OR
The most potent risk factor in the development of [disease name] is [risk factor 1]. Other risk factors include [risk factor 2], [risk factor 3], and [risk factor 4].
OR
Common risk factors in the development of [disease name] include [risk factor 1], [risk factor 2], [risk factor 3], and [risk factor 4].
OR
Common risk factors in the development of [disease name] may be occupational, environmental, genetic, and viral.
Screening
According to the American College of Physicians and the United States Preventive Services Taskforce, do not recommend screening for ovarian cancer with a bimanual pelvic examination in asymptomatic and non-pregnant women [11].
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
Common complications of adnexal mass include hemorrhagic ovarian cysts, ovarian cyst rupture, and adnexal torsion with resulting in ischemia and necrosis.
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of adnexal mass.
History and Symptoms
The most common symptom is lower abdominal or pelvic pain with pressure character that can be associated with vaginal bleeding[12]. Other associated symptoms such as dyspareunia, bloating, and abdominal distension, urinary symptoms raise suspicion of malignancy[11]
The onset and duration of the pain dictate the urgency of intervention. Sudden onset of severe pelvic pain during the first trimester of pregnancy, or associated with fever require immediate evaluation in the urgent care clinic or the emergency department to exclude ruptured ectopic pregnancy, ruptures ovarian cyst, tubo-ovarian abscess, or ovarian torsion12
The broad spectrum of diseases causing adnexal mass is guided by age, parity, contraception methods, use of ovulation induction medication, and family history of breast or gynecological tumors particularly of associated with BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations11
Physical Examination
The presence of a palpable mass on pelvic examination is diagnostic of adnexal mass. Although not palpating any mass does not exclude the diagnosis and still requires imagining studies.
Laboratory Findings
Some patients with adnexal masses may have elevated concentrations of CA125, which is usually suggestive of epithelial ovarian cancer[13].
Electrocardiogram
There are no ECG findings associated with an adnexal mass.
X-ray
There are no x-ray findings associated with adnexal masses.
Ultrasound
Transvaginal ultrasound is necessary to diagnose adnexal mass. The best modality is to combine transvaginal ultrasound with transabdominal ultrasound to better realize the characteristics of the mass and whether benign or malignant[14]. Findings on a transvaginal ultrasound suggestive of simple cyst include thin-walled, anechoic/black, and rounded shape. Endometrioma appears as a homogenous cystic mass with medium echogenicity[15]. While, hydrosalpinx emerges as a septated or nodular tube[16]. Malignancy is suspected when a grey scale solid mass with thick irregular septations is seen[17].
CT scan
There are no CT scan findings associated with adnexal masses. However, a CT scan may be helpful for the staging ovarian cancer.
MRI
A series of basic T1 and T2 pelvic MRIs may be helpful in the diagnosis of ultrasonically indeterminant adnexal masses such as hemorrhagic cysts with a mural clot, atypical mature teratoma, and solid ovarian neoplasms. This can be a cost-effective approach to avoid unnecessary surgical intervention[18].
Other Imaging Findings
There are no other imaging findings associated with an adnexal mass.
Other Diagnostic Studies
Other diagnostic studies for adnexal mass include serum or urine BHCG for all women of premenopausal age, which is positive in cases of ectopic pregnancy. Estradiol and total testosterone levels should be measured with signs of excess estrogen as virilization and hirsutism[19].
Treatment
Medical Therapy
There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.
OR
Supportive therapy for [disease name] includes [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and [therapy 3].
OR
The majority of cases of [disease name] are self-limited and require only supportive care.
OR
[Disease name] is a medical emergency and requires prompt treatment.
OR
The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is [therapy].
OR The optimal therapy for [malignancy name] depends on the stage at diagnosis.
OR
[Therapy] is recommended among all patients who develop [disease name].
OR
Pharmacologic medical therapy is recommended among patients with [disease subclass 1], [disease subclass 2], and [disease subclass 3].
OR
Pharmacologic medical therapies for [disease name] include (either) [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and/or [therapy 3].
OR
Empiric therapy for [disease name] depends on [disease factor 1] and [disease factor 2].
OR
Patients with [disease subclass 1] are treated with [therapy 1], whereas patients with [disease subclass 2] are treated with [therapy 2].
Surgery
Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of [disease name].
OR
Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with [disease name]. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and [indication 3]
OR
The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is medical therapy. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and/or [indication 3].
OR
The feasibility of surgery depends on the stage of [malignancy] at diagnosis.
OR
Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for [disease or malignancy].
Primary Prevention
There are no established measures for the primary prevention of adnexal mass.
Secondary Prevention
There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name].
OR
Effective measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name] include [strategy 1], [strategy 2], and [strategy 3].
References
- ↑ Givens V, Mitchell GE, Harraway-Smith C, Reddy A, Maness DL (2009). "Diagnosis and management of adnexal masses". Am Fam Physician. 80 (8): 815–20. PMID 19835343 PMID: 19835343 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Brosens IA, Puttemans PJ, Deprest J (1994). "The endoscopic localization of endometrial implants in the ovarian chocolate cyst". Fertil Steril. 61 (6): 1034–8. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(16)56752-1. PMID 8194613.
- ↑ Heintz AP, Odicino F, Maisonneuve P, Beller U, Benedet JL, Creasman WT; et al. (2001). "Carcinoma of the ovary". J Epidemiol Biostat. 6 (1): 107–38. PMID 11385772.
- ↑ Tewari K, Cappuccini F, Disaia PJ, Berman ML, Manetta A, Kohler MF (2000). "Malignant germ cell tumors of the ovary". Obstet Gynecol. 95 (1): 128–33. doi:10.1016/s0029-7844(99)00470-6. PMID 10636515.
- ↑ de Waal YR, Thomas CM, Oei AL, Sweep FC, Massuger LF (2009). "Secondary ovarian malignancies: frequency, origin, and characteristics". Int J Gynecol Cancer. 19 (7): 1160–5. doi:10.1111/IGC.0b013e3181b33cce. PMID 19823050.
- ↑ Jain KA (2002). "Sonographic spectrum of hemorrhagic ovarian cysts". J Ultrasound Med. 21 (8): 879–86. doi:10.7863/jum.2002.21.8.879. PMID 12164573.
- ↑ Clement PB (1993). "Tumor-like lesions of the ovary associated with pregnancy". Int J Gynecol Pathol. 12 (2): 108–15. doi:10.1097/00004347-199304000-00004. PMID 8463033.
- ↑ Granberg S, Gjelland K, Ekerhovd E (2009). "The management of pelvic abscess". Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 23 (5): 667–78. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2009.01.010. PMID 19230781.
- ↑ Timmerman D, Van Calster B, Testa A, Savelli L, Fischerova D, Froyman W; et al. (2016). "Predicting the risk of malignancy in adnexal masses based on the Simple Rules from the International Ovarian Tumor Analysis group". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 214 (4): 424–437. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2016.01.007. PMID 26800772. Review in: Evid Based Med. 2016 Oct;21(5):197
- ↑ Hermans AJ, Kluivers KB, Janssen LM, Siebers AG, Wijnen MHWA, Bulten J; et al. (2016). "Adnexal masses in children, adolescents and women of reproductive age in the Netherlands: A nationwide population-based cohort study". Gynecol Oncol. 143 (1): 93–97. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2016.07.096. PMID 27421754.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Biggs WS, Marks ST (2016). "Diagnosis and Management of Adnexal Masses". Am Fam Physician. 93 (8): 676–81. PMID 27175840.
- ↑ Givens V, Mitchell GE, Harraway-Smith C, Reddy A, Maness DL (2009). "Diagnosis and management of adnexal masses". Am Fam Physician. 80 (8): 815–20. PMID 19835343.
- ↑ Cannistra SA (2004). "Cancer of the ovary". N Engl J Med. 351 (24): 2519–29. doi:10.1056/NEJMra041842. PMID 15590954.
- ↑ Levine D, Brown DL, Andreotti RF, Benacerraf B, Benson CB, Brewster WR; et al. (2010). "Management of asymptomatic ovarian and other adnexal cysts imaged at US: Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference Statement". Radiology. 256 (3): 943–54. doi:10.1148/radiol.10100213. PMC 6939954 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 20505067. - ↑ Patel MD, Feldstein VA, Chen DC, Lipson SD, Filly RA (1999). "Endometriomas: diagnostic performance of US". Radiology. 210 (3): 739–45. doi:10.1148/radiology.210.3.r99fe61739. PMID 10207476.
- ↑ Timor-Tritsch IE, Lerner JP, Monteagudo A, Murphy KE, Heller DS (1998). "Transvaginal sonographic markers of tubal inflammatory disease". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 12 (1): 56–66. doi:10.1046/j.1469-0705.1998.12010056.x. PMID 9697286.
- ↑ Brown DL, Doubilet PM, Miller FH, Frates MC, Laing FC, DiSalvo DN; et al. (1998). "Benign and malignant ovarian masses: selection of the most discriminating gray-scale and Doppler sonographic features". Radiology. 208 (1): 103–10. doi:10.1148/radiology.208.1.9646799. PMID 9646799.
- ↑ Spencer JA, Ghattamaneni S (2010). "MR imaging of the sonographically indeterminate adnexal mass". Radiology. 256 (3): 677–94. doi:10.1148/radiol.10090397. PMID 20720065.
- ↑ Rosner W, Vesper H, Endocrine Society. American Association for Clinical Chemistry. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Androgen Excess/PCOS Society; et al. (2010). "Toward excellence in testosterone testing: a consensus statement". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 95 (10): 4542–8. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-1314. PMID 20926540.