Myocarditis endomyocardial biopsy
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief:Varun Kumar, M.B.B.S.
Overview
Endomyocardial biopsy remains the gold standard test to evaluate for the presence of and to subclassify the type of myocarditis. A small tissue sample of the endocardium and myocardium is obtained via right sided cardiac catheterization. The sample is then evaluated by a pathologist using immunochemistry and special staining techniques as necessary. Histopathological features include abundant edema in the myocardial interstitium and an inflammatory infiltrate which is rich in lymphocytes and macrophages. Focal destruction of myocytes as a result of the inflammatory process explains the myocardial pump failure.[1] Endomyocardial biopsy is recommended when the results would identify an underlying disease that is amenable to therapy. Routine performance of endomyocardial biopsy is not recommended in all patients with myocarditis.
Endomyocardial biopsy
The Heart Failure Society of America recommends that performance of endomyocardial biopsy should be considered when cardiac function deteriorates acutely with an unknown etiology that is unresponsive to medical therapy (Strength of Evidence = B)[2].
Non-specific findings such as hypertrophy, cell loss and fibrosis may be noted on biopsy. However, biopsy findings that significantly impact patient management have not been conclusively established[3]. For example, inflammatory changes in myocardium may be detected in viral myocarditis. Nevertheless, majority of the patients with biopsy proven myocarditis improve with just supportive care without any need for antiviral or anti-inflammatory treatment[4]. Endomyocardial biopsy has a low sensitivity and specificity which could be explained by the focal and transient nature of the inflammatory infiltrates[5][6].
Standardizing the Interpretation of Endomyocardial Biopsies: The Dallas Criteria
Histologically, both active inflammatory infiltrate within the myocardium and associated myocyte necrosis (the Dallas pathologic criteria)[7] are present in myocarditis. Despite its limitations, the Dallas criteria have established uniform histologic criteria diagnosing myocarditis and have substantially reduced the variability in diagnosing the disease. Some of the criteria are as follows:
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Scenarios in Which Endomyocardial Biopsy is Useful
Myocardial biopsy may be useful in:
- Confirming the clinically suspected cause of myocarditis.
- Confirming the presence of cardiac disorders such as amyloidosis which may identify patients who are not eligible for cardiac transplantation.
- Giant cell myocarditis can be identified on endomyocardial biopsy. These patients generally progress rapidly to either cardiac transplantation or death and are poorly responsive to treatment. Hence, myocardial biopsy may assist in the optimal management of these patients by identifying and triaging patients who may benefit from early heart transplantation[8].
2009 ACC / AHA Guidelines for Endomyocardial Biopsy[9]
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Class IIa
Class III
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The AHA/ACCF/ESC Scientific Statement: The role of Endomyocardial Biopsy in fourteen clinical scenarios[10]
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Class I 1. New-onset heart failure of <2 weeks’ duration associated with a normal-sized or dilated left ventricle and hemodynamic compromise. (Level of Evidence: B) 2. New-onset heart failure of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle and new ventricular arrhythmias, second- or third-degree heart block, or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: B) Class IIa 1. Heart failure of >3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle and new ventricular arrhythmias, second- or third-degree heart block, or failure to respond to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: C) 2. Heart failure associated with a DCM of any duration associated with suspected allergic reaction and/or eosinophilia. (Level of Evidence: C) 3. Heart failure associated with suspected anthracycline cardiomyopathy. (Level of Evidence: C) 4. Heart failure associated with unexplained restrictive cardiomyopathy. (Level of Evidence: C) 5. Suspected cardiac tumors. (Level of Evidence: C) 6. Unexplained cardiomyopathy in children. (Level of Evidence: C) Class IIb 1. New-onset heart failure of 2 weeks’ to 3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle, without new ventricular arrhythmias or second- or third-degree heart block, that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: B) 2. Heart failure of >3 months’ duration associated with a dilated left ventricle, without new ventricular arrhythmias or second- or third-degree heart block, that responds to usual care within 1 to 2 weeks. (Level of Evidence: C) 3. Heart failure associated with unexplained HCM. (Level of Evidence: C) 4. Suspected ARVD/C. (Level of Evidence: C) 5. Unexplained ventricular arrhythmias. (Level of Evidence: C) Class III 1. Unexplained atrial fibrillation. (Level of Evidence: C) |
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Indications for endomyocardial biopsy[11][12]
- Subacute or acute symptoms of heart failure refractory to standard management
- Rapid worsening of ejection fraction despite standard pharmacological therapy
- Development of cardiac arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and heart blocks
- Heart failure with concomitant rash, fever, or peripheral eosinophilia
- Cardiac dysfunction secondary to following causes as biopsy may change or modify the therapy:
Complications of Endomyocardial Biopsy[10][13]
Complications may be as high as 6% as observed in a series where 546 patients with cardiomyopathy underwent right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy[14]. Other studies reported the incidence of complications to be lower at 0.5 to 1.5%[13][15].
- Myocardial perforation leading to pericardial tamponade
- Heart block
- Pulmonary embolization
- Arrhythmias
- Pneumothorax
- Nerve injury
- Hematoma
- Tricuspid valve damage
- Arteriovenous fistula
- Deep venous thrombosis
References
- ↑ Feldman AM, McNamara D (2000). "Myocarditis". N Engl J Med. 343 (19): 1388–98. doi:10.1056/NEJM200011093431908. PMID 11070105.
- ↑ Heart Failure Society of America. Lindenfeld J, Albert NM, Boehmer JP, Collins SP, Ezekowitz JA; et al. (2010). "HFSA 2010 Comprehensive Heart Failure Practice Guideline". J Card Fail. 16 (6): e1–194. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2010.04.004. PMID 20610207.
- ↑ Chow LC, Dittrich HC, Shabetai R (1988). "Endomyocardial biopsy in patients with unexplained congestive heart failure". Ann Intern Med. 109 (7): 535–9. PMID 3421562.
- ↑ Mason JW, O'Connell JB, Herskowitz A, Rose NR, McManus BM, Billingham ME; et al. (1995). "A clinical trial of immunosuppressive therapy for myocarditis. The Myocarditis Treatment Trial Investigators". N Engl J Med. 333 (5): 269–75. doi:10.1056/NEJM199508033330501. PMID 7596370.
- ↑ Mahrholdt H, Goedecke C, Wagner A, Meinhardt G, Athanasiadis A, Vogelsberg H; et al. (2004). "Cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment of human myocarditis: a comparison to histology and molecular pathology". Circulation. 109 (10): 1250–8. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000118493.13323.81. PMID 14993139.
- ↑ Hauck AJ, Kearney DL, Edwards WD (1989). "Evaluation of postmortem endomyocardial biopsy specimens from 38 patients with lymphocytic myocarditis: implications for role of sampling error". Mayo Clin Proc. 64 (10): 1235–45. PMID 2593714.
- ↑ Aretz HT, Billingham ME, Edwards WD, Factor SM, Fallon JT, Fenoglio JJ; et al. (1987). "Myocarditis. A histopathologic definition and classification". Am J Cardiovasc Pathol. 1 (1): 3–14. PMID 3455232.
- ↑ Cooper LT, Berry GJ, Shabetai R (1997). "Idiopathic giant-cell myocarditis--natural history and treatment. Multicenter Giant Cell Myocarditis Study Group Investigators". N Engl J Med. 336 (26): 1860–6. doi:10.1056/NEJM199706263362603. PMID 9197214.
- ↑ Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG; et al. (2009). "2009 focused update incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation". Circulation. 119 (14): e391–479. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192065. PMID 19324966.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U; et al. (2007). "The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology". Circulation. 116 (19): 2216–33. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093. PMID 17959655.
- ↑ Wu LA, Lapeyre AC, Cooper LT (2001). "Current role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis". Mayo Clin Proc. 76 (10): 1030–8. PMID 11605687.
- ↑ Magnani JW, Dec GW (2006). "Myocarditis: current trends in diagnosis and treatment". Circulation. 113 (6): 876–90. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.584532. PMID 16476862.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Yilmaz A, Kindermann I, Kindermann M, Mahfoud F, Ukena C, Athanasiadis A; et al. (2010). "Comparative evaluation of left and right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy: differences in complication rate and diagnostic performance". Circulation. 122 (9): 900–9. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924167. PMID 20713901.
- ↑ Deckers JW, Hare JM, Baughman KL (1992). "Complications of transvenous right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy in adult patients with cardiomyopathy: a seven-year survey of 546 consecutive diagnostic procedures in a tertiary referral center". J Am Coll Cardiol. 19 (1): 43–7. PMID 1729344.
- ↑ Holzmann M, Nicko A, Kühl U, Noutsias M, Poller W, Hoffmann W; et al. (2008). "Complication rate of right ventricular endomyocardial biopsy via the femoral approach: a retrospective and prospective study analyzing 3048 diagnostic procedures over an 11-year period". Circulation. 118 (17): 1722–8. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.743427. PMID 18838566.