Abdominal mass

Abdominal mass
This infant has massive hepatomegaly due to metastatic neuroblastoma. Intra-abdominal pressure is partially relieved by a silastic pouch. Image courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission © PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief: John Fani Srour, M.D.

Overview

An abdominal mass is any localized enlargement or swelling in the human abdomen. Depending on its location, the abdominal mass may be caused by an enlarged liver (hepatomegaly), enlarged spleen (splenomegaly), protruding kidney, a pancreatic mass, a retroperitoneal mass (a mass in the posterior of the peritoneum), an abdominal aortic aneurysm, or various tumours, such as those caused by abdominal carcinomatosis and omental metastasis. The treatments depend on the cause, and may range from watchful waiting to radical surgery.

Many abdominal masses are discovered incidentally during routine physical examination. When they present symptomatically, abdominal masses are most frequently associated with pain or digestive problems. However, depending on the cause, masses may be associated with other signs and symptoms, such as jaundice or bowel obstruction.

Causes

Common Causes

• Abdominal aortic aneurysm
• Bladder distention
• Cholecystitis
• Colon cancer
• Crohn's disease
• Bowel obstruction
• Diverticulitis
• Gallbladder tumor
• Hydronephrosis
• Kidney cancer
• Liver cancer
• Hepatomegaly
• Neuroblastoma
• Ovarian cyst
• Pancreatic abscess
• Pancreatic pseudocyst
• Splenomegaly
• Stomach cancer
• Uterine leiomyoma
• Volvulus
• Uretero-pelvic junction obstruction

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular	Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
Chemical / poisoning	No underlying causes
Dermatologic	No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect	No underlying causes
Ear Nose Throat	No underlying causes
Endocrine	No underlying causes
Environmental	No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic	Acute pancreatitis, Ascites, Autoimmune pancreatitis, Bezoar, Biliary atresia, Blind loop syndrome, Bowel obstruction, Cholangiocarcinoma, Cholecystitis, Choledochal cyst, Cholelithiasis, Cirrhosis, Colonic diverticulitis, Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, Congenital megacolon, Constipation, Crohn's disease, Distal intestinal obstruction syndrome, Gastroschisis, Hepatomegaly, Hirschsprung's disease, Liver granuloma, Palpable gallbladder Courvoisier's sign, Pancreatic pseudocyst, Pyloric stenosis, Riedel lobe of liver, Splenosis, Toxic megacolon, Urachal cyst, Vermiform appendix, Volvulus, Wandering spleen, Yersinia enterocolitica
Genetic	Acanthocheilonemiasis , Alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency (Hurler syndrome), Alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency (Hurler-Scheie syndrome), Alpha-mannosidase deficiency, Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency, Beta thalassaemia (heterozygous), Chanarin-Dorfman disease, Chediak-Higashi disease , Cholesterol ester storage disease , Common variable hypogammaglobulinaemia, Congenital dyserythropoietic anaemia type 1, Congenital erythropoeitic porphyria, Coproporphyria, hereditary , Cruveilhier-Baumgarten syndrome, Familial alphalipoprotein deficiency, Familial histiocytic reticulosis, Familial hypertriglyceridaemia, Farber lipogranulomatosis, Fucosidosis , Fumarase deficiency , Galactose epimerase deficiency, Galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase deficiency, Gangliosidosis GM1 type 1, Gangliosidosis GM1 type 3, Gangliosidosis GM3, Gaucher disease , Geleophysic dysplasia, Glucose phosphate isomerase deficiency, Glycogenosis type 4, Granulocyte colony stimulating factor, Haemochromatosis , Haemoglobin C disease, Haemoglobin E disease, Haemoglobin SC disease, Haemolytic disease of the newborn, Hereditary spherocytosis , Iduronate-2-sulfatase deficiency, Iminodipeptiduria Kartagener syndrome , Long chain hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, Macrophage activation syndrome, McLeod phenotype, Mevalonate kinase deficiency, Mucopolysaccharidosis VI , Neutrophilia, hereditary, Niemann-Pick disease type B, Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C, Norrbottnian Gaucher disease, Salla disease , Sandhoff disease , Sanfilippo disease, Sarcoidosis , Sickle cell disease, Zimmermann-Laband syndrome
Hematologic	Chediak-Higashi disease , Extramedullary haemopoiesis, Familial histiocytic reticulosis, Fanconi-Bickel syndrome, Haemochromatosis , Sickle cell crisis , Haemoglobin C disease, Haemoglobin E disease, Haemoglobin SC disease, Haemolytic disease of the newborn, Hereditary spherocytosis , Mastocytosis , Myelofibrosis , Hereditary neutrophilia, Vitamin B12 deficiency
Iatrogenic	No underlying causes
Infectious Disease	Abscess, Actinomyces, Alveolar hydatid disease, Bartonellosis, Brucellosis, Cat scratch fever, Entamoeba histolytica, Gallbladder empyema, kala-azar, Leishmaniasis, Kaposi sarcoma, Liver abscess, Liver granuloma, Lymphogranuloma venereum, Malaria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Oesophagostomiasis, Pancreatic abscess, Pelvic inflammatory disease, Psittacosis, Relapsing fever , Syphilis congenital, Tertiary syphilis, Toxoplasmosis congenital, Yersinia enterocolitica
Musculoskeletal / Ortho	No underlying causes
Neurologic	No underlying causes
Nutritional / Metabolic	No underlying causes
Obstetric/Gynecologic	Choriocarcinoma, Ectopic pregnancy, Endometriosis, Meigs syndrome, Pelvic inflammatory disease, Pregnancy, Uterine enlargement, Uterine leiomyoma
Oncologic	Adrenal tumor, Brenner tumor, Burkitt's lymphoma, Carcinoid tumours, Cholangiocarcinoma, Choriocarcinoma, Chronic myelogenous leukemia, Colorectal cancer, Desmoplastic small round cell tumor, Endodermal sinus tumor, Gallbladder benign tumors, Gallbladder cancer, Gastrointestinal stromal tumor, Germ cell tumor, Hairy cell leukaemia, Hamartoma, Hemangioendothelioma, Hemangiopericytoma, Hepatic adenoma, Hepatoblastoma, Histiocytosis X, Hodgkin's lymphoma, Kaposi sarcoma, Kidney cancer, Krukenberg tumor, Leiomyoma, Liposarcoma, Metastatic Liver cancer, Primary Liver cancer, Meigs syndrome, Nephroblastoma, Neurilemmoma, Neuroendocrine tumor, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Oncocytoma, Ovarian cancer, Pancreatic cancer, Pancreatic islet cell tumors, Phaeochromocytoma, Plexosarcoma, POEMS syndrome, Pseudomyxoma peritonei, Renal cell carcinoma, Renal oncocytoma, Rhabdoid tumor, Sacrococcygeal teratoma, Sickle cell crisis, Sister Mary Joseph nodule, Small bowel lymphoma, Spleen lymphoma, Stomach cancer, Transitional cell carcinoma, Uterine leiomyoma, Wilm's tumor
Opthalmologic	No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity	No underlying causes
Psychiatric	No underlying causes
Pulmonary	No underlying causes
Renal / Electrolyte	No underlying causes
Rheum / Immune / Allergy	No underlying causes
Sexual	No underlying causes
Trauma	No underlying causes
Urologic	Bladder distention, Cryptorchidism, Hydronephrosis, Kidney cancer, Pelvic kidney, Polycystic kidney disease, Renal cell carcinoma, Renal oncocytoma, Renal transplantation, Transitional cell carcinoma, Urine retention, Varicocele, Wilm's tumor
Miscellaneous	No underlying causes

Causes in Alphabetical Order

Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Abscess Actinomyces Acute pancreatitis Adrenal tumor Alveolar hydatid disease (parasite mass, most commonly involving the liver) Amyloidosis (hepatomegaly and splenomegaly) Aneurysms Ascites (localized ascites) Autoimmune pancreatitis (inflammatory mass) Bezoar Biliary atresia Bladder distention Blind loop syndrome ( the mass is the loop of the bowel) Bowel obstruction (the mass is a loop of the obstructed bowel) Brenner tumor (ovarian tumor) Burkitt's lymphoma Carcinoid tumours Cholangiocarcinoma Cholecystitis ( inflammatory mass, or abscess) Choledochal cyst Cholelithiasis ( a stone filled gallbladder can produces a painless right-upper-quadrant mass) Choriocarcinoma Chronic myelogenous leukemia (splenomegaly) Cirrhosis ( the liver itself or one significantly enlarged nodule) C66 Colonic diverticulitis (inflammatory mass or peridiverticular abscess) Colorectal cancer Congenital megacolon (Hirschsprung's disease) Constipation (fecal mass or dilated colon) Crohn's disease ( abscess, loop of obstructed bowel, or inflammatory mass with or with out fistula) Cryptorchidism Dermoid cyst Desmoplastic small round cell tumor ( soft tissue sarcoma, usually multiple abdominal masses) Distal intestinal obstruction syndrome ( in patients with cystic fibrosis or pancreatic enzymes insufficiency) Ectopic pregnancy Endodermal sinus tumor Endometriosis Entamoeba histolytica (hepatomegaly and splenomegaly) Eosinophilic gastroenteritis ( rare presentation as an obstructing caecal mass) Extramedullary hematopoiesis (splenomegaly) Gallbladder benign tumors Gallbladder cancer Gallbladder empyema Gastrointestinal stromal tumor Gastroschisis ( other names paraomphalocele, laparoschisis, or abdominoschisis) Germ cell tumor Hamartoma Hemangioendothelioma Hemangiopericytoma Hepatic adenoma Hepatoblastoma Hepatomegaly 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate hydroxylase deficiency Alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency (Hurler syndrome) Alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency (Hurler-Scheie syndrome) Alpha-mannosidase deficiency Amyloidosis Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency Arginosuccinate synthetase deficiency Arginosuccinic aciduria Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome type 1 Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome type 2 Berardinelli lipodystrophy syndrome Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 deficiency Castleman disease Cerebrohepatorenal syndrome Chanarin-Dorfman disease Chediak-Higashi disease Cholesterol ester storage disease Coproporphyria, hereditary Cystic fibrosis Dibasic aminoaciduria type 2 Extramedullary haemopoiesis Familial alphalipoprotein deficiency Familial histiocytic reticulosis Familial hypertriglyceridaemia Fanconi-Bickel syndrome Farber lipogranulomatosis Fructose-1, 6-diphosphatase deficiency Fructose-1-phosphate aldolase deficiency Fucosidosis Fumarase deficiency Galactose epimerase deficiency Galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase deficiency Gangliosidosis GM1, type 1 Gangliosidosis GM1, type 3 Gangliosidosis GM3 Gaucher disease Geleophysic dysplasia Glutaric acidemia type 2 Glycine N-methyltransferase deficiency Glycogenosis type 1a Glycogenosis type 1b Glycogenosis type 2 Glycogenosis type 3 Glycogenosis type 6 Glycogenosis type 8 Haemochromatosis Hepatic hemangioma Hepatic venoocclusive disease with immunodeficiency Hepatocellular jaundice I-cell disease Iduronate-2-sulfatase deficiency Iminodipeptiduria Lipoprotein lipase deficiency Liver granuloma Long chain hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency Long-chain Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency Mucopolysaccharidosis type IVB Mucopolysaccharidosis VI Myelofibrosis Niemann-Pick disease type B Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C Norrbottnian Gaucher disease Osteopetrosis (malignant) Plasma membrane carnitine transporter deficiency POEMS syndrome Polycystic kidney disease Polycystic liver disease Riedel lobe of liver Salla disease Sandhoff disease Sanfilippo disease Sickle cell crisis Sphingomyelinase deficiency Syphilis, congenital Toxoplasma, congenital Very long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency Visceral larva migrans Wilson disease Wolcott-Rallison syndrome Zimmermann-Laband syndrome Hernia Hirschsprung's disease (congenital megacolon) Hodgkin's lymphoma Hydatid cyst Hydronephrosis Intususception of the intestine kala-azar or Leishmaniasis (splenomegaly) Kaposi sarcoma Kidney cancer (including renal cell carcinoma) Krukenberg tumor (secondary ovarian malignancy whose primary site arose in the gastrointestinal tract) Large bowel obstruction Leiomyoma Liposarcoma(retroperitoneal) Liver abscess Liver cancer, metastatic Liver cancer, primary (hepatocellular carcinoma) Liver granuloma Lymphogranuloma venereum Meigs syndrome (ovarian tumor) Mesenteric cyst Mesothelioma ( abdominal ) Mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma (MALTOMA) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (hepatomegaly and splenomegaly) Nephroblastoma Neurilemmoma Neuroblastoma Neuroendocrine tumor Neurofibromatosis Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Obesity ( subcutaneous fat mass) Oesophagostomiasis ( a parasitic intestinal helminth that develops in the colonic wall, causing pus-filled granulomas) Ogilvie's Syndrome (dilated loop of bowels) Oncocytoma (of the kidney) Ovarian cancer Ovarian cyst Palpable gallbladder (Courvoisier's sign) Pancreatic abscess Pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic islet cell tumors Pancreatic pseudocyst Pelvic inflammatory disease (abscess) Pelvic kidney Peritoneal adhesions Phaeochromocytoma Plexosarcoma Polycystic kidney disease Pregnancy Prune belly syndrome Pseudomyxoma peritonei Pyloric stenosis Rectus sheath hematoma Renal cell carcinoma Renal oncocytoma Renal transplantation (the mass is the transplanted kidney) Rhabdoid tumor Riedel lobe of liver (sessile accessory lobe of the liver, a normal variant) Sacrococcygeal teratoma Sarcoidosis ( granulomatus mass, hepatomegaly, or splenomegaly Sickle cell crisis (abdominal / sequestration) Sister Mary Joseph nodule Small bowel lymphoma Small bowel obstruction Small intestine cancer Spleen lymphoma Splenomegaly Acanthocheilonemiasis Adult T cell leukemia Alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency (Hurler syndrome) Alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency (Hurler-Scheie syndrome) Alpha-mannosidase deficiency Amyloidosis Angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy with dysproteinaemia Apolipoprotein C-II deficiency Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome type 1 Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome type 2 Babesiosis Bartonellosis Beta thalassaemia (heterozygous) Brucellosis Cardiac failure, right sided Castleman disease Cat scratch fever Chanarin-Dorfman disease Chediak-Higashi disease Cholesterol ester storage disease Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia Chronic myeloid leukaemia Common variable hypogammaglobulinaemia Congenital dyserythropoietic anaemia type 1 Congenital erythropoeitic porphyria Coproporphyria, hereditary Cruveilhier-Baumgarten syndrome Dengue Endocarditis Epstein-Barr virus Extramedullary haemopoiesis Familial alphalipoprotein deficiency Familial histiocytic reticulosis Familial hypertriglyceridaemia Farber lipogranulomatosis Filgrastim Fucosidosis Fumarase deficiency Galactose epimerase deficiency Galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase deficiency Gamma heavy chain disease Gangliosidosis GM1, type 1 Gangliosidosis GM1, type 3 Gangliosidosis GM3 Gaucher disease Geleophysic dysplasia Glucose phosphate isomerase deficiency Glycogenosis type 4 Granulocyte colony stimulating factor Haemochromatosis Haemoglobin C disease Haemoglobin E disease Haemoglobin SC disease Haemolytic disease of the newborn Hairy cell leukaemia Hepatic portal vein obstruction Hepatic vein thrombosis Hepatitis B Hereditary spherocytosis Histiocytosis X Hodgkin lymphoma I-cell disease Iduronate-2-sulfatase deficiency Iminodipeptiduria Infectious mononucleosis Juvenile chronic arthritis Kartagener syndrome Long chain hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency Macrophage activation syndrome Malaria (benign quartan) Malaria (benign tertian) Malaria (malignant tertian) Mastocytosis McLeod phenotype Mevalonate kinase deficiency Mixed essential cryoglobulinaemia mu chain disease Mucopolysaccharidosis VI Myelofibrosis Myeloma Neutrophilia, hereditary Niemann-Pick disease type B Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Norrbottnian Gaucher disease Osteopetrosis (malignant) Paragonimiasis Polycythaemia rubra vera Primary autoimmune haemolytic anaemia Primary biliary cirrhosis Primary thrombocythemia, acquired Psittacosis Relapsing fever Rickettsiae Rubella Salla disease Sandhoff disease Sanfilippo disease Sarcoidosis Schistosoma haematobium Schistosoma mansoni Sea blue histiocytosis Serum sickness Sickle cell disease Sleeping sickness (East African) Sleeping sickness (West African) Sphingomyelinase deficiency Still disease, adult-onset Still Disease, Juvenile-Onset Syphilis, congenital Systemic lupus erythematosus Tertiary syphilis Toxocariasis Toxoplasma Toxoplasma, congenital Trench fever Typhus fever Tyrosinaemia type 1 Visceral larva migrans Visceral leishmaniasis Vitamin B12 deficiency Waldenström macroglobulinemia Whipple disease Zimmermann-Laband syndrome Splenosis (autotransplantation of splenic tissues, usually after splenic rupture) Stomach cancer Syphilis(congenital) Tertiary syphilis (mass, hepatomegaly, and splenomegaly) Toxic megacolon Toxoplasmosis(congenital) Transitional cell carcinoma (bladder) Urachal cyst (a sinus remaining from the allantosis during embryogenesis) Ureteropelvic junction obstruction (pediatric hydronephrosis and palpable kidneys) Urine retention (distended bladder) Uterine enlargement Uterine leiomyoma (fibroids) Varicocele Vermiform appendix Visceral larva migrans Volvulus (twisted piece of the gastrointestinal tract) Wandering spleen Wilm's tumor (pediatric renal tumor) Yersinia enterocolitica (inflammatory mass, lymphoid mass, or Intususception of intestine)

Diagnosis

The first steps in diagnosis are a medical history and physical examination. Important clues during history include weight loss, diarrhea and abdominal pain.

During physical examination, the clinician must identify the location of the mass, as well as characterize its location (usually specified in terms of quadrants). The mass should be assessed for whether it is rigid or mobile. It should also be characterized for pulse or peristalsis, as these would help in further identifying the mass.

Routine blood tests are usually the next step in diagnosis after a thorough medical history and physical examination. They should include a full blood count, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, and liver function tests such as albumin, international normalized ratio (INR), partial thromboplastin time (PTT), serum amylase and total bilirubin (TBIL). If late-stage liver disease is suspected, then a serum glucose may be appropriate.

Physical Examination

• Associated symptoms:
  • Rectal bleeding
  • Weight change
  • Urinary symptoms
  • Fever
  • Changes in bowel habits

Abdomen

• Examine abdomen for areas of tenderness

Other

• Examine pelvis for areas of tenderness

Laboratory Findings

• Blood urea nitrogen (BUN)/creatinine
• Complete blood count (CBC)
• LFTs (liver function tests)
• Urinalysis
• Beta-human chorionic gonadotrophin

Electrolyte and Biomarker Studies

• Electrolytes
• Tumor markers (if concern is malignancy)
• Toxicology screen
• Blood culture (if concern is infection)

X Ray

• KUB (kidneys, ureters, bladder) x-rays could possibly reveal free intraperitoneal air, constipation or obstruction.

MRI and CT

• Abdominal CT with oral IV contrast will evaluate for bowel pathology, abscess, and hepatosplenomegaly

Other Diagnostic Studies

• Laparoscopy of the intra-abdominal cavity allows for direct visualization
• Colonoscopy helps in the diagnosis of bowel pathology
• Paracentesis with fluid evaluation.

Treatment

• Immediately treat life-threatening causes (such as abdominal aortic aneurysms).
• Organomegaly typically resolves once the underlying etiology is treated.

Acute Pharmacotherapies

• Ogilvie's syndrome responds to decompression by IV neostigmine or by a rectal tube
• Constipation is usually treated with laxatives, increased dietary fiber and fluids, enemas.

  • Manual disimpaction is reserved for fecal impaction.
  • Stop use of offending medications.

• Masses caused by infections require antibiotics (and possible surgery)

Surgery and Device Based Therapy

• Several benign and malignant masses require surgical intervention
• Hirschsprung's disease often requires surgery.

Additional Resources

• MedlinePlus medical encyclopedia: Abdominal mass - An informative primer on abdominal masses and their common causes.

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