Amitriptyline
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Pratik Bahekar, MBBS [2]
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Black Box Warning
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Suicidality and Antidepressant Drugs
See full prescribing information for complete Boxed Warning.
Antidepressants increased the risk compared to placebo of suicidal thinking and behavior (suicidality) in children, adolescents, and young adults in short-term studies of major depressive disorder (MDD) and other psychiatric disorders. Anyone considering the use of amitriptyline hydrochloride tablets or any other antidepressant in a child, adolescent, or young adult must balance this risk with the clinical need. Short-term studies did not show an increase in the risk of suicidality with antidepressants compared to placebo in adults beyond age 24; there was a reduction in risk with antidepressants compared to placebo in adults aged 65 and older. Depression and certain other psychiatric disorders are themselves associated with increases in the risk of suicide. Patients of all ages who are started on antidepressant therapy should be monitored appropriately and observed closely for clinical worsening, suicidality, or unusual changes in behavior. Families and caregivers should be advised of the need for close observation and communication with the prescriber. Amitriptyline hydrochloride is not approved for use in pediatric patients.
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Overview
Amitriptyline is a Tricyclic antidepressant that is FDA approved for the {{{indicationType}}} of depression. There is a Black Box Warning for this drug as shown here. Common adverse reactions include M.
Adult Indications and Dosage
FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Adult)
Condition 1
- Dosing Information
- (Dosage)
Off-Label Use and Dosage (Adult)
Guideline-Supported Use
Condition 1
- Developed by: American Association
- Class of Recommendation: Class 1(Link)
- Strength of Evidence: (Category A/B/C) (Link)
- Dosing Information/Recommendation
- (Dosage)
Non–Guideline-Supported Use
Condition 1
- Dosing Information
- There is limited information about Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use of Amitriptyline in adult patients.
Pediatric Indications and Dosage
FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Pediatric)
Condition 1
- Dosing Information
- (Dosage)
Off-Label Use and Dosage (Pediatric)
Guideline-Supported Use
Condition 1
- Developed by: (Organization)
- Class of Recommendation: (Class) (Link)
- Strength of Evidence: (Category A/B/C) (Link)
- Dosing Information/Recommendation
- (Dosage)
Non–Guideline-Supported Use
Condition 1
- Dosing Information
- There is limited information about Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use of Amitriptyline in pediatric patients.
Contraindications
- Hypersensitivity to tricyclic antidepressants or to any of its recipients
- History of myocardial infarction
- History of arrhythmias, and heart block to any degree
- Congestive heart failure
- Coronary artery insufficiency
- Mania
- Severe liver disease
- Children under 7 years
- Breast feeding
- Patients who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) or have taken them within the last 14 days.[1]
Warnings
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Suicidality and Antidepressant Drugs
See full prescribing information for complete Boxed Warning.
Antidepressants increased the risk compared to placebo of suicidal thinking and behavior (suicidality) in children, adolescents, and young adults in short-term studies of major depressive disorder (MDD) and other psychiatric disorders. Anyone considering the use of amitriptyline hydrochloride tablets or any other antidepressant in a child, adolescent, or young adult must balance this risk with the clinical need. Short-term studies did not show an increase in the risk of suicidality with antidepressants compared to placebo in adults beyond age 24; there was a reduction in risk with antidepressants compared to placebo in adults aged 65 and older. Depression and certain other psychiatric disorders are themselves associated with increases in the risk of suicide. Patients of all ages who are started on antidepressant therapy should be monitored appropriately and observed closely for clinical worsening, suicidality, or unusual changes in behavior. Families and caregivers should be advised of the need for close observation and communication with the prescriber. Amitriptyline hydrochloride is not approved for use in pediatric patients.
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Clinical Worsening and Suicide Risk
Patients with major depressive disorder (MDD), both adult and pediatric, may experience worsening of their depression and/or the emergence of suicidal ideation and behavior (suicidality) or unusual changes in behavior, whether or not they are taking antidepressant medications, and this risk may persist until significant remission occurs. Suicide is a known risk of depression and certain other psychiatric disorders, and these disorders themselves are the strongest predictors of suicide. There has been a long-standing concern, however, that antidepressants may have a role in inducing worsening of depression and the emergence of suicidality in certain patients during the early phases of treatment. Pooled analyses of short-term placebo-controlled trials of antidepressant drugs (SSRIs and others) showed that these drugs increase the risk of suicidal thinking and behavior (suicidality) in children, adolescents, and young adults (ages 18 to 24) with major depressive disorder (MDD) and other psychiatric disorders. Short-term studies did not show an increase in the risk of suicidality with antidepressants compared to placebo in adults beyond age 24; there was a reduction with antidepressants compared to placebo in adults aged 65 and older.
The pooled analyses of placebo-controlled trials in children and adolescents with MDD, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), or other psychiatric disorders included a total of 24 short-term trials of 9 antidepressant drugs in over 4400 patients. The pooled analyses of placebo-controlled trials in adults with MDD or other psychiatric disorders included a total of 295 short-term trials (median duration of 2 months) of 11 antidepressant drugs in over 77,000 patients. There was considerable variation in risk of suicidality among drugs, but a tendency toward an increase in the younger patients for almost all drugs studied. There were differences in absolute risk of suicidality across the different indications, with the highest incidence in MDD. The risk differences (drug vs placebo), however, were relatively stable within age strata and across indications. These risk differences (drug-placebo difference in the number of cases of suicidality per 1000 patients treated) are provided in Table 1. No suicides occurred in any of the pediatric trials. There were suicides in the adult trials, but the number was not sufficient to reach any conclusion about drug effect on suicide.
It is unknown whether the suicidality risk extends to longer-term use, i.e., beyond several months. However, there is substantial evidence from placebo-controlled maintenance trials in adults with depression that the use of antidepressants can delay the recurrence of depression.
All patients being treated with antidepressants for any indication should be monitored appropriately and observed closely for clinical worsening, suicidality, and unusual changes in behavior, especially during the initial few months of a course of drug therapy, or at times of dose changes, either increases or decreases.
The following symptoms, anxiety, agitation, panic attacks, insomnia, irritability, hostility, aggressiveness, impulsivity, akathisia (psychomotor restlessness), hypomania, and mania, have been reported in adult and pediatric patients being treated with antidepressants for major depressive disorder as well as for other indications, both psychiatric and nonpsychiatric. Although a causal link between the emergence of such symptoms and either the worsening of depression and/or the emergence of suicidal impulses has not been established, there is concern that such symptoms may represent precursors to emerging suicidality.
Consideration should be given to changing the therapeutic regimen, including possibly discontinuing the medication, in patients whose depression is persistently worse, or who are experiencing emergent suicidality or symptoms that might be precursors to worsening depression or suicidality, especially if these symptoms are severe, abrupt in onset, or were not part of the patient’s presenting symptoms.
Families and caregivers of patients being treated with antidepressants for major depressive disorder or other indications, both psychiatric and nonpsychiatric, should be alerted about the need to monitor patients for the emergence of agitation, irritability, unusual changes in behavior, and the other symptoms described above, as well as the emergence of suicidality, and to report such symptoms immediately to health care providers. Such monitoring should include daily observation by families and caregivers. Prescriptions for amitriptyline hydrochloride should be written for the smallest quantity of tablets consistent with good patient management, in order to reduce the risk of overdose.
Screening Patients for Bipolar Disorder
A major depressive episode may be the initial presentation of bipolar disorder. It is generally believed (though not established in controlled trials) that treating such an episode with an antidepressant alone may increase the likelihood of precipitation of a mixed/manic episode in patients at risk for bipolar disorder. Whether any of the symptoms described above represent such a conversion is unknown. However, prior to initiating treatment with an antidepressant, patients with depressive symptoms should be adequately screened to determine if they are at risk for bipolar disorder; such screening should include a detailed psychiatric history, including a family history of suicide, bipolar disorder, and depression. It should be noted that amitriptyline hydrochloride is not approved for use in treating bipolar depression.
Amitriptyline hydrochloride may block the antihypertensive action of guanethidine or similarly acting compounds.
It should be used with caution in patients with a history of seizures and, because of its atropine-like action, in patients with a history of urinary retention, angle-closure glaucoma or increased intraocular pressure. In patients with angle-closure glaucoma, even average doses may precipitate an attack.
Patients with cardiovascular disorders should be watched closely. Tricyclic antidepressant drugs, including amitriptyline hydrochloride, particularly when given in high doses, have been reported to produce arrhythmias, sinus tachycardia, and prolongation of the conduction time. Myocardial infarction and stroke have been reported with drugs of this class.
Close supervision is required when amitriptyline hydrochloride is given to hyperthyroid patients or those receiving thyroid medication.
Amitriptyline may enhance the response to alcohol and the effects of barbiturates and other CNS depressants. In patients who may use alcohol excessively, it should be borne in mind that the potentiation may increase the danger inherent in any suicide attempt or overdosage. Delirium has been reported with concurrent administration of amitriptyline and disulfiram.
Usage in Pregnancy
Pregnancy Category C
Teratogenic effects were not observed in mice, rats, or rabbits when amitriptyline was given orally at doses of 2 to 40 mg/kg/day (up to 13 times the maximum recommended human dose1). Studies in literature have shown amitriptyline to be teratogenic in mice and hamsters when given by various routes of administration at doses of 28 to 100 mg/kg/day (9 to 33 times the maximum recommended human dose), producing multiple malformations. Another study in the rat reported that an oral dose of 25 mg/kg/day (8 times the maximum recommended human dose) produced delays in ossification of fetal vertebral bodies without other signs of embryotoxicity. In rabbits, an oral dose of 60 mg/kg/day (20 times the maximum recommended human dose) was reported to cause incomplete ossification of cranial bones.
Amitriptyline has been shown to cross the placenta. Although a causal relationship has not been established, there have been a few reports of adverse events, including CNS effects, limb deformities, or developmental delay, in infants whose mothers had taken amitriptyline during pregnancy.
There are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Amitriptyline hydrochloride should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit to the mother justifies the potential risk to the fetus. Based on a maximum recommended amitriptyline dose of 150 mg/day or 3 mg/kg/day for a 50 kg patient.
Nursing Mothers
Amitriptyline is excreted into breast milk. In one report in which a patient received amitriptyline 100 mg/day while nursing her infant, levels of 83 to 141 ng/mL were detected in the mother’s serum. Levels of 135 to 151 ng/mL were found in the breast milk, but no trace of the drug could be detected in the infant’s serum.
Because of the potential for serious adverse reactions in nursing infants from amitriptyline, a decision should be made whether to discontinue nursing or to discontinue the drug, taking into account the importance of the drug to the mother.
Usage in Pediatric Patients
In view of the lack of experience with the use of this drug in pediatric patients, it is not recommended at the present time for patients under 12 years of age.
PRECAUTIONS
Schizophrenic patients may develop increased symptoms of psychosis; patients with paranoid symptomatology may have an exaggeration of such symptoms. Depressed patients, particularly those with known manic-depressive illness, may experience a shift to mania or hypomania. In these circumstances the dose of amitriptyline may be reduced or a major tranquilizer such as perphenazine may be administered concurrently.
The possibility of suicide in depressed patients remains until significant remission occurs. Potentially suicidal patients should not have access to large quantities of this drug. Prescriptions should be written for the smallest amount feasible.
Concurrent administration of amitriptyline hydrochloride and electroshock therapy may increase the hazards associated with such therapy. Such treatment should be limited to patients for whom it is essential.
When possible, the drug should be discontinued several days before elective surgery.
Both elevation and lowering of blood sugar levels have been reported.
Amitriptyline hydrochloride should be used with caution in patients with impaired liver function.
Adverse Reactions
Clinical Trials Experience
Central Nervous System
- (list/description of adverse reactions)Coma; seizures; hallucinations; delusions; confusional states; disorientation; incoordination; ataxia; tremors; peripheral neuropathy; numbness, tingling and paresthesias of the extremities; extrapyramidal symptoms including abnormal involuntary movements and tardive dyskinesia; dysarthria; disturbed concentration; excitement; anxiety; insomnia; restlessness; nightmares; drowsiness; dizziness; weakness; fatigue; headache; syndrome of inappropriate ADH (antidiuretic hormone) secretion; tinnitus; alteration in EEG patterns.
Cardiovascular
- Myocardial infarction; stroke; nonspecific ECG changes and changes in AV conduction; heart block; arrhythmias; hypotension, particularly orthostatic hypotension; syncope; hypertension; tachycardia; palpitation.
Gastrointestinal
- Rarely hepatitis (including altered liver function and jaundice); nausea; epigastric distress; vomiting; anorexia; stomatitis; peculiar taste; diarrhea; parotid swelling; black tongue.
Hypersensitive Reactions
- Skin rash; urticaria; photosensitization; edema of face and tongue.
Anticholinergic
- Paralytic ileus, hyperpyrexia; urinary retention, dilatation of the urinary tract; constipation; blurred vision, disturbance of accommodation, increased ocular pressure, mydriasis; dry mouth.
Hematologic
- Bone marrow depression including agranulocytosis, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia; purpura; eosinophilia.
Endocrine
- Testicular swelling and gynecomastia in the male; breast enlargement and galactorrhea in the female; increased or decreased libido; impotence; elevation and lowering of blood sugar levels.
Miscellaneous
- Alopecia; edema; weight gain or loss; urinary frequency; increased perspiration.
Postmarketing Experience
Central Nervous System
- (list/description of adverse reactions)
Cardiovascular
- (list/description of adverse reactions)
Respiratory
- (list/description of adverse reactions)
Gastrointestinal
- (list/description of adverse reactions)
Hypersensitive Reactions
- (list/description of adverse reactions)
Miscellaneous
- (list/description of adverse reactions)
Drug Interactions
- CYP2D6 inhibitors and substrates such as fluoxetine
- An increase in plasma concentrations of the drug to be seen.
- It can reduce the antihypertensive effects of this drug.
- Anticholinergic agents such as benztropine, hyoscine (scopolamine) and atropine.
- May exacerbate each other's anticholinergic effects, causing paralytic ileus and tachycardia.
- Exacerbate the sedative, anticholinergic, epileptogenic and pyrexic (fever-promoting) effects.
- Increases the risk of neuroleptic malignant syndrome
- Interfere with hepatic metabolism of amitriptyline, increasing steady-state concentrations of the drug.
- The potential for the development of delirium
- May increase the risks associated with this treatment
- Antithyroid medications
- May increase the risk of agranulocytosis
- Thyroid hormones
- May increase adverse effects such as CNS stimulation and arrhythmias.
- Analgesics, such as tramadol
- May increase in seizure risk.
- Medications that are subject to gastric inactivation (e.g. levodopa)
- Amitriptyline delays gastric emptying and reduce intestinal motility
- Medications that may be subject to increased absorption given more time in the small intestine (e.g. anticoagulants)
- Serotoninergic agents such as the SSRIs and triptans
- Risk of serotonin syndrome.
Use in Specific Populations
Pregnancy
Pregnancy Category (FDA):
There is no FDA guidance on usage of Amitriptyline in women who are pregnant.
Pregnancy Category (AUS):
There is no Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) guidance on usage of Amitriptyline in women who are pregnant.
Labor and Delivery
There is no FDA guidance on use of Amitriptyline during labor and delivery.
Nursing Mothers
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline in women who are nursing.
Pediatric Use
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline in pediatric settings.
Geriatic Use
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline in geriatric settings.
Gender
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline with respect to specific gender populations.
Race
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline with respect to specific racial populations.
Renal Impairment
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline in patients with renal impairment.
Hepatic Impairment
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline in patients with hepatic impairment.
Females of Reproductive Potential and Males
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Amitriptyline in women of reproductive potentials and males.
Immunocompromised Patients
There is no FDA guidance one the use of Amitriptyline in patients who are immunocompromised.
Administration and Monitoring
Administration
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Administration in the drug label.
Monitoring
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Monitoring in the drug label.
IV Compatibility
There is limited information regarding the compatibility of Amitriptyline and IV administrations.
Overdosage
The symptoms and the treatment of an overdose are largely the same as for the other TCAs, including the presentation of serotonin syndrome and adverse cardiac effects. The British National Formulary notes that amitriptyline can be particularly dangerous in overdose,[2] thus it and other tricyclic antidepressants are no longer recommended as first line therapy for depression. Alternative agents, SSRIs and SNRIs are safer in overdose, though they are no more efficacious than TCAs. English folk singer, Nick Drake, died from an overdose of Tryptizol in 1974.
The possible symptoms of amitriptyline overdose include:[3]
- Drowsiness
- Hypothermia (low body temperature)
- Tachycardia (high heart rate)
- Other arrhythmic abnormalities, such as bundle branch block
- ECG evidence of impaired conduction
- Congestive heart failure
- Dilated pupils
- Convulsions (e.g. seizures, myoclonus)
- Severe hypotension (very low blood pressure)
- Stupor
- Coma
- Polyradiculoneuropathy
- Changes in the electrocardiogram, particularly in QRS axis or width
- Agitation
- Hyperactive reflexes
- Muscle rigidity
- Vomiting
The treatment of overdose is mostly supportive as there is no specific antidote for amitriptyline overdose.[3] Activated charcoal may reduce absorption if given within 1-2 hours of ingestion.[3] If the affected person is unconscious or have an impaired gag reflex a nasograstic tube may be used to deliver the activated charcoal in the stomach.[3] ECG monitoring for cardiac conduction abnormalities is essential and if one is found close monitoring of cardiac function is advised.[3] Body temperature should be regulated with measures such as heating blankets if necessary.[3] Likewise cardiac arrhythmias can be treated with propanolol and should heart failure occur digitalis may be used.[3] Cardiac monitoring is advised for at least five days after the overdose.[3] Other measures include the use of inhalation anaesthetics or diazepam for convulsions and barbiturates should be avoided if possible due to the potential for additive CNS depression (that is, on top of the CNS depression caused by the amitriptyline).[3] Dialysis is of no use due to the high degree of protein binding with amitriptyline.[3]
Pharmacology
Mechanism of Action
Amitriptyline acts primarily as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, with strong actions on the serotonin transporter and moderate effects on the norepinephrine transporter.[6][7] It has negligible influence on the dopamine transporter and therefore does not affect dopamine reuptake, being nearly 1,000 times weaker on it than on serotonin.[7] It is metabolised to nortriptyline — a more potent and selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor — which may hence compliment its effects on norepinephrine reuptake.[3]
Amitriptyline additionally functions as a 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C, 5-HT3, 5-HT6, 5-HT7, α1-adrenergic, H1, H2,[8] H4,[9][10] and mACh receptorantagonist, and σ1 receptor agonist.[11][12][13][14] It has also been shown to be a relatively weak NMDA receptor negative allosteric modulator at the same binding site as phencyclidine.[15] Amitriptyline inhibits sodium channels, L-type calcium channels, and Kv1.1, Kv7.2, and Kv7.3 voltage-gated potassium channels, and therefore acts as a sodium, calcium, and potassium channel blocker as well.[16][17]
Recently, amitriptyline has been demonstrated to act as an agonist of the TrkA and TrkB receptors.[18] It promotes the heterodimerization of these proteins in the absence of NGF and has potent neurotrophic activity both in-vivo and in-vitro in mouse models.[18][19] These are the same receptors BDNF activates, an endogenous neurotrophin with powerful antidepressant effects, and as such this property may contribute significantly to its therapeutic efficacy against depression. Amitriptyline also acts as FIASMA (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase).[20]
Structure
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Pharmacodynamics
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Pharmacodynamics in the drug label.
Pharmacokinetics
Amitriptyline is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is extensively metabolised on first-pass through the liver.[3] It is metabolised mostly via CYP2D6, CYP3A4, CYP2C9-mediated N-demethylation into nortriptyline,[3] which is another tricyclic antidepressant in its own right.[21] It is 96% bound to plasma proteins, nortriptyline is 93-95% bound to plasma proteins.[3][22]It is mostly excreted in the urine (around 30-50%) as metabolites either free or as glucuronide and sulfate conjugates.[3]Small amounts are also excreted in faeces.[5]
Nonclinical Toxicology
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Nonclinical Toxicology in the drug label.
Clinical Studies
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Clinical Studies in the drug label.
How Supplied
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline How Supplied in the drug label.
Storage
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Storage in the drug label.
Images
Drug Images
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Package and Label Display Panel
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Patient Counseling Information
Prescribers or other health professionals should inform patients, their families, and their caregivers about the benefits and risks associated with treatment with amitriptyline hydrochloride and should counsel them in its appropriate use. A patient Medication Guide about “Antidepressant Medicines, Depression and other Serious Mental Illnesses, and Suicidal Thoughts or Actions” is available for amitriptyline hydrochloride. The prescriber or health professional should instruct patients, their families, and their caregivers to read the Medication Guide and should assist them in understanding its contents. Patients should be given the opportunity to discuss the contents of the Medication Guide and to obtain answers to any questions they may have. The complete text of the Medication Guide is reprinted at the end of this document.
Patients should be advised of the following issues and asked to alert their prescriber if these occur while taking amitriptyline hydrochloride.
Clinical Worsening and Suicide Risk
Patients, their families, and their caregivers should be encouraged to be alert to the emergence of anxiety, agitation, panic attacks, insomnia, irritability, hostility, aggressiveness, impulsivity, akathisia (psychomotor restlessness), hypomania, mania, other unusual changes in behavior, worsening of depression, and suicidal ideation, especially early during antidepressant treatment and when the dose is adjusted up or down. Families and caregivers of patients should be advised to look for the emergence of such symptoms on a day-to-day basis, since changes may be abrupt. Such symptoms should be reported to the patient’s prescriber or health professional, especially if they are severe, abrupt in onset, or were not part of the patient’s presenting symptoms. Symptoms such as these may be associated with an increased risk for suicidal thinking and behavior and indicate a need for very close monitoring and possibly changes in the medication.
While on therapy with amitriptyline hydrochloride, patients should be advised as to the possible impairment of mental and/or physical abilities required for performance of hazardous tasks, such as operating machinery or driving a motor vehicle.
Precautions with Alcohol
Alcohol-Amitriptyline interaction has not been established. Talk to your doctor about the effects of taking alcohol with this medication.
Brand Names
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Brand Names in the drug label.
Look-Alike Drug Names
There is limited information regarding Amitriptyline Look-Alike Drug Names in the drug label.
Drug Shortage Status
Price
References
The contents of this FDA label are provided by the National Library of Medicine.
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
- ↑
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
- ↑ "Potency of antidepressants to block noradrenaline reuptake". CNS Forum. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Tatsumi M, Groshan K, Blakely RD, Richelson E (December 1997). "Pharmacological profile of antidepressants and related compounds at human monoamine transporters". Eur. J. Pharmacol. 340 (2–3): 249–58. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(97)01393-9. PMID 9537821.
- ↑ Albert Ellis; Gwynn Pennant Ellis (1 January 1987). Progress in Medicinal Chemistry. Elsevier. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-444-80876-9. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
- ↑ Nguyen T, Shapiro DA, George SR; et al. (March 2001). "Discovery of a novel member of the histamine receptor family". Molecular Pharmacology. 59 (3): 427–33. PMID 11179435.
- ↑ D. Sriram & P. Yogeeswari (1 September 2010). Medicinal Chemistry. Pearson Education India. p. 299. ISBN 978-81-317-3144-4. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
- ↑ Owens MJ, Morgan WN, Plott SJ, Nemeroff CB (December 1997). "Neurotransmitter receptor and transporter binding profile of antidepressants and their metabolites". J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 283 (3): 1305–22. PMID 9400006.
- ↑ Alan F. Schatzberg, Charles B. (2006). Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-58562-243-6.
- ↑ Rauser L, Savage JE, Meltzer HY, Roth BL (October 2001). "Inverse agonist actions of typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs at the human 5-hydroxytryptamine(2C) receptor". J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 299 (1): 83–9. PMID 11561066.
- ↑ Werling LL, Keller A, Frank JG, Nuwayhid SJ (October 2007). "A comparison of the binding profiles of dextromethorphan, memantine, fluoxetine and amitriptyline: treatment of involuntary emotional expression disorder". Exp. Neurol. 207 (2): 248–57. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.06.013. PMID 17689532.
- ↑ Sills MA, Loo PS (July 1989). "Tricyclic antidepressants and dextromethorphan bind with higher affinity to the phencyclidine receptor in the absence of magnesium and L-glutamate". Mol. Pharmacol. 36 (1): 160–5. PMID 2568580.
- ↑ Pancrazio JJ, Kamatchi GL, Roscoe AK, Lynch C (January 1998). "Inhibition of neuronal Na+ channels by antidepressant drugs". J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 284 (1): 208–14. PMID 9435180.
- ↑ Punke MA, Friederich P (May 2007). "Amitriptyline is a potent blocker of human Kv1.1 and Kv7.2/7.3 channels". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 104 (5): 1256–1264. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000260310.63117.a2. PMID 17456683.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Jang SW, Liu X, Chan CB, Weinshenker D, Hall RA, Xiao G, Ye K (June 2009). "Amitriptyline is a TrkA and TrkB receptor agonist that promotes TrkA/TrkB heterodimerization and has potent neurotrophic activity". Chem. Biol. 16 (6): 644–56. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2009.05.010. PMC 2844702. PMID 19549602.
- ↑ "Pharmaceutical Information - AMITRIPTYLINE". RxMed. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
- ↑ Kornhuber J, Muehlbacher M, Trapp S, Pechmann S, Friedl A, Reichel M, Mühle C, Terfloth L, Groemer T, Spitzer G, Liedl K, Gulbins E, Tripal P (2011). Riezman, Howard, ed. "Identification of novel functional inhibitors of acid sphingomyelinase". PLoS ONE. 6 (8): e23852. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023852. PMC 3166082. PMID 21909365.
- ↑
- ↑ "Pamelor, Aventyl (nortriptyline) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
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