Influenza cost-effectiveness of therapy
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Alejandro Lemor, M.D. [2]
Overview
Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy Adapted from CDC [1][2]
Influenza produces direct costs due to lost productivity and associated medical treatment, as well as indirect costs of preventative measures. In the United States, influenza is responsible for a total cost of over $10 billion per year, while it has been estimated that a future pandemic could cause hundreds of billions of dollars in direct and indirect costs. However, the economic impact of past pandemics have not been intensively studied, and some authors have suggested that the Spanish influenza actually had a positive long-term effect on per-capita income growth, despite a large reduction in the working population and severe short-term depressive effects.[3] Other studies have attempted to predict the costs of a pandemic as serious as the 1918 Spanish flu on the U.S. economy, where 30% of all workers became ill, and 2.5% were killed. A 30% sickness rate and a three-week length of illness would decrease gross domestic product by 5%. Additional costs would come from medical treatment of 18 million to 45 million people, and total economic costs would be approximately $700 billion.[4]
Antiviral Drugs
- Randomized, controlled trials conducted primarily among persons with mild illness in outpatient settings have demonstrated that zanamivir or oseltamivir can reduce the duration of uncomplicated influenza A and B illness by approximately 1 day when administered within 48 hours of illness onset compared with placebo[5][6][7][8]
- One randomized, controlled trial of oseltamivir treatment among 408 children aged 1--3 years reported that when oseltamivir was started within 24 hours of illness onset, the median time to illness resolution was shortened by 3.5 days compared with placebo.
- Minimal or no benefit was reported in healthy children and adults when antiviral treatment was initiated more than 2 days after onset of uncomplicated influenza.
- The amount of influenza viral shedding was reduced among those treated, but studies on whether the duration of viral shedding is reduced have been inconsistent [9][10][11][12][13] and the temporal and causal relationships between changes in influenza viral shedding and clinical outcomes have not been well-established.
Vaccination
- A RCT conducted among 1,602 healthy children initially aged 15–71 months assessed the efficacy of trivalent LAIV against culture-confirmed influenza during two seasons.[14]
- In season one, when vaccine and circulating virus strains were well-matched, efficacy in preventing laboratory-confirmed illness from influenza was 93% for participants who received two doses of LAIV.
- In season two, when the A (H3N2) component was not well-matched between vaccine and circulating virus strains, efficacy was 86% overall.
- A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial among 4,561 healthy working adults aged 18–64 years assessed multiple endpoints (i.e., targeted outcome measures), including reductions in self-reported respiratory tract illness without laboratory confirmation, absenteeism, health care visits, use of antibiotics, and use of over-the-counter medications for illness symptoms during peak and total influenza outbreak periods[15]). The study was conducted during the 1997-1998 influenza season, when the influenza vaccine and circulating A (H3N2) viruses were poorly matched. Vaccination was associated with reductions in severe febrile illnesses of 19%, and febrile upper respiratory tract illnesses of 24%.
- Vaccination was also associated with fewer days of illness, fewer days of work lost, fewer days with health care provider visits, and reduced use of prescription antibiotics and over-the-counter medications. Among a subset of 3,637 healthy adults aged 18–49 years, LAIV recipients (n = 2,411) had 26% fewer febrile upper-respiratory illness episodes; 27% fewer lost work days as a result of febrile upper respiratory illness; and 18%–37% fewer days of health care provider visits caused by febrile illness, compared with placebo recipients (n = 1,226). Days of antibiotic use were reduced by 41%–45% in this age subset.
- One study included 2,187 children aged 6–71 months who had recurrent respiratory tract infections[16] and found overall influenza rates of 2.3% among live vaccine recipients and 4.8% for TIV, for a 52.7% decrease in children receiving live vaccine compared to those receiving inactivated vaccine.
- In a randomized study of 2,229 children aged 6–17 years with asthma, 4.1% of live vaccine recipients and 6.2% of TIV recipients developed influenza, for a relative reduction of 34.7% (Fleming et al., 2006). Finally, in 2004-2005 a multinational RCT was conducted among 8,352 children aged 6–59 months (Belshe et al., 2007). For the primary endpoint in this trial, culture-confirmed influenza-like illness, there were 45% fewer cases of influenza for well-matched influenza strains and 58% fewer for mismatched strains among live versus inactivated vaccine recipients.
Chemoprophylaxis
References
- ↑ "CDC Flu Vaccine Effectiveness".
- ↑ "CDC Guidance on the Use of Influenza Antiviral Agents".
- ↑ Brainerd, E. and M. Siegler (2003), “The Economic Effects of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic”, CEPR Discussion Paper, no. 3791.
- ↑ Poland G (2006). "Vaccines against avian influenza—a race against time". N Engl J Med. 354 (13): 1411–3. PMID 16571885.
- ↑ Hayden FG, Osterhaus AD, Treanor JJ, Fleming DM, Aoki FY, Nicholson KG; et al. (1997). "Efficacy and safety of the neuraminidase inhibitor zanamivir in the treatment of influenzavirus infections. GG167 Influenza Study Group". N Engl J Med. 337 (13): 874–80. doi:10.1056/NEJM199709253371302. PMID 9302301.
- ↑ Monto AS, Fleming DM, Henry D, de Groot R, Makela M, Klein T; et al. (1999). "Efficacy and safety of the neuraminidase inhibitor zanamivirin the treatment of influenza A and B virus infections". J Infect Dis. 180 (2): 254–61. doi:10.1086/314904. PMID 10395837.
- ↑ Nicholson KG, Aoki FY, Osterhaus AD, Trottier S, Carewicz O, Mercier CH; et al. (2000). "Efficacy and safety of oseltamivir in treatment of acute influenza: a randomised controlled trial. Neuraminidase Inhibitor Flu Treatment Investigator Group". Lancet. 355 (9218): 1845–50. PMID 10866439.
- ↑ Whitley RJ, Hayden FG, Reisinger KS, Young N, Dutkowski R, Ipe D; et al. (2001). "Oral oseltamivir treatment of influenza in children". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 20 (2): 127–33. PMID 11224828.
- ↑ Carrat F, Vergu E, Ferguson NM, Lemaitre M, Cauchemez S, Leach S; et al. (2008). "Time lines of infection and disease in human influenza: a review of volunteer challenge studies". Am J Epidemiol. 167 (7): 775–85. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm375. PMID 18230677.
- ↑ Cowling BJ, Chan KH, Fang VJ, Lau LL, So HC, Fung RO; et al. (2010). "Comparative epidemiology of pandemic and seasonal influenza A in households". N Engl J Med. 362 (23): 2175–84. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0911530. PMC 4070281. PMID 20558368.
- ↑ Hayden FG, Fritz R, Lobo MC, Alvord W, Strober W, Straus SE (1998). "Local and systemic cytokine responses during experimental human influenza A virus infection. Relation to symptom formation and host defense". J Clin Invest. 101 (3): 643–9. doi:10.1172/JCI1355. PMC 508608. PMID 9449698.
- ↑ Hayden FG, Treanor JJ, Fritz RS, Lobo M, Betts RF, Miller M; et al. (1999). "Use of the oral neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir in experimental human influenza: randomized controlled trials for prevention and treatment". JAMA. 282 (13): 1240–6. PMID 10517426.
- ↑ Sato M, Hosoya M, Kato K, Suzuki H (2005). "Viral shedding in children with influenza virus infections treated with neuraminidase inhibitors". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 24 (10): 931–2. PMID 16220098.
- ↑ Longini IM, Halloran ME, Nizam A, Wolff M, Mendelman PM, Fast PE; et al. (2000). "Estimation of the efficacy of live, attenuated influenza vaccine from a two-year, multi-center vaccine trial: implications for influenza epidemic control". Vaccine. 18 (18): 1902–9. PMID 10699339.
- ↑ Nichol KL (1999). "Influenza vaccination for healthy working adults". Minn Med. 82 (11): 24–6. PMID 10589210.
- ↑ Ashkenazi S, Vertruyen A, Arístegui J, Esposito S, McKeith DD, Klemola T; et al. (2006). "Superior relative efficacy of live attenuated influenza vaccine compared with inactivated influenza vaccine in young children with recurrent respiratory tract infections". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 25 (10): 870–9. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000237829.66310.85. PMID 17006279.