Prostate cancer risk factors
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
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Overview
Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer are dietary, lifestyle, family history, African-American men, occupational factors, age, environmental factors, and medication.
Risk Factors
Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer include:
- Family history
- African American
Medication exposure
There are also some links between prostate cancer and medications, medical procedures, and medical conditions.[1] Use of the cholesterol-lowering drugs known as the statins may also decrease prostate cancer risk.[2]
Infection or inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) may increase the chance for prostate cancer while another study shows infection may help prevent prostate cancer by increasing blood to the area. In particular, infection with the sexually transmitted infections chlamydia, gonorrhea, or syphilis seems to increase risk.[3] Finally, obesity[4] and elevated blood levels of testosterone[5] may increase the risk for prostate cancer. There is an association between vasectomy and prostate cancer however more research is needed to determine if this is a causative relationship.[6]
Research released in May 2007, found that US war veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange had a 48% increased risk of prostate cancer recurrence following surgery.[7]
Infectious disease
An association with gonorrhea has been found, but a mechanism for this relationship has not been identified.[8]
In 2006, a previously unknown retrovirus, Xenotropic MuLV-related virus or XMRV, was associated with human prostate tumors,[9] but subsequent reports on the virus were contradictory,[10][11] and the original 2006 finding was instead due to a previously undetected contamination.[12] The journals Science and PlosONE both retracted XMRV related articles.[13][14]
Sexual factors
Several case-control studies have shown that having many lifetime sexual partners or starting sexual activity early in life substantially increases the risk of prostate cancer.[15][16][17]
While the available evidence is weak,[18] tentative results suggest that frequent ejaculation may decrease the risk of prostate cancer.[19] A study, over eight years, showed that those that ejaculated most frequently (over 21 times per month on average) were less likely to get prostate cancer.[20] The results were broadly similar to the findings of a smaller Australian study.[21]
References
- ↑ Jacobs EJ, Rodriguez C, Mondul AM, Connell CJ, Henley SJ, Calle EE, Thun MJ (July 2005). "A large cohort study of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and prostate cancer incidence". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97 (13): 975–80. doi:10.1093/jnci/dji173. PMID 15998950.
- ↑ Shannon J, Tewoderos S, Garzotto M, Beer TM, Derenick R, Palma A, Farris PE (August 2005). "Statins and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 162 (4): 318–25. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi203. PMID 16014776.
- ↑ Dennis LK, Lynch CF, Torner JC (July 2002). "Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer". Urology. 60 (1): 78–83. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(02)01637-0. PMID 12100928.
- ↑ Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ (April 2003). "Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults". N. Engl. J. Med. 348 (17): 1625–38. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa021423. PMID 12711737.
- ↑ Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ (August 1996). "Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 88 (16): 1118–26. doi:10.1093/jnci/88.16.1118. PMID 8757191.
- ↑ "?". Retrieved 9 August 2010.
- ↑ "Veterans exposed to Agent Orange have higher rates of prostate cancer recurrence". Medical College of Georgia News. May 20, 2007.
- ↑ Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedCainiGandini2014 - ↑ Urisman A, Molinaro RJ, Fischer N, Plummer SJ, Casey G, Klein EA, Malathi K, Magi-Galluzzi C, Tubbs RR, Ganem D, Silverman RH, DeRisi JL (March 2006). "Identification of a Novel Gammaretrovirus in Prostate Tumors of Patients Homozygous for R462Q RNASEL Variant". PLoS Pathog. 2 (3): e25. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0020025. PMC 1434790. PMID 16609730. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Schlaberg R, Choe DJ, Brown KR, Thaker HM, Singh IR (September 2009). "XMRV is present in malignant prostatic epithelium and is associated with prostate cancer, especially high-grade tumors". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 (38): 16351–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906922106. PMC 2739868. PMID 19805305.
- ↑ Hohn O, Krause H, Barbarotto P, Niederstadt L, Beimforde N, Denner J, Miller K, Kurth R, Bannert N (2009). "Lack of evidence for xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) in German prostate cancer patients". Retrovirology. 6: 92. doi:10.1186/1742-4690-6-92. PMC 2770519. PMID 19835577.
- ↑ Lee D, Das Gupta J, Gaughan C, Steffen I, Tang N, Luk KC, Qiu X, Urisman A, Fischer N, Molinaro R, Broz M, Schochetman G, Klein EA, Ganem D, Derisi JL, Simmons G, Hackett J, Silverman RH, Chiu CY (2012). Tachedjian, Gilda, ed. "In-Depth Investigation of Archival and Prospectively Collected Samples Reveals No Evidence for XMRV Infection in Prostate Cancer". PLoS ONE. 7 (9): e44954. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044954. PMC 3445615. PMID 23028701. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Alberts B (Dec 23, 2011). "Retraction". Science. 334 (6063): 1636. doi:10.1126/science.334.6063.1636-a. PMID 22194552. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Ross, Susan, ed. (September 2012). "Retraction. Identification of a novel gammaretrovirus in prostate tumors of patients homozygous for R462Q RNASEL variant". PLoS Pathogens. 8 (9): 10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01–2e9b–4e9b–aef0–87ab0e4e4732. doi:10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01-2e9b-4e9b-aef0-87ab0e4e4732. PMC 3445601. PMID 23028303. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Dennis LK, Dawson DV (January 2002). "Meta-analysis of measures of sexual activity and prostate cancer". Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.). 13 (1): 72–9. doi:10.1097/00001648-200201000-00012. PMID 11805589.
- ↑ Rosenblatt KA, Wicklund KG, Stanford JL (Jun 15, 2001). "Sexual factors and the risk of prostate cancer". American Journal of Epidemiology. 153 (12): 1152–8. doi:10.1093/aje/153.12.1152. PMID 11415949.
- ↑ Sarma AV, McLaughlin JC, Wallner LP, Dunn RL, Cooney KA, Schottenfeld D, Montie JE, Wei JT (September 2006). "Sexual behavior, sexually transmitted diseases and prostatitis: the risk of prostate cancer in black men". The Journal of Urology. 176 (3): 1108–13. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.04.075. PMID 16890703.
- ↑ Male Reproductive Cancers. Springer New York. 2010. p. 27. ISBN 9781441904508.
- ↑ Scardino, Peter (2005). Comprehensive textbook of genitourinary oncology (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 16. ISBN 9780781749848.
- ↑ Leitzmann, MF; Platz, EA; Stampfer, MJ; Willett, WC; Giovannucci, E (7 April 2004). "Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer". JAMA. 291 (13): 1578–86. doi:10.1001/jama.291.13.1578. PMID 15069045.
- ↑ Giles, GG; Severi, G; English, DR; McCredie, MR; Borland, R; Boyle, P; Hopper, JL (August 2003). "Sexual factors and prostate cancer". BJU international. 92 (3): 211–6. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.2003.04319.x. PMID 12887469.
