Prostate cancer risk factors
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
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Overview
Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer are dietary, lifestyle, family history, African-American men, occupational factors, age, environmental factors, and medication.
Risk Factors
Common risk factors in the development of prostate cancer include:
- Family history
- African American
- obesity
- Elevated blood levels of testosterone
- Agent Orange
Infectious disease
An association with gonorrhea has been found, but a mechanism for this relationship has not been identified.[1]
In 2006, a previously unknown retrovirus, Xenotropic MuLV-related virus or XMRV, was associated with human prostate tumors,[2] but subsequent reports on the virus were contradictory,[3][4] and the original 2006 finding was instead due to a previously undetected contamination.[5] The journals Science and PlosONE both retracted XMRV related articles.[6][7]
Sexual factors
Several case-control studies have shown that having many lifetime sexual partners or starting sexual activity early in life substantially increases the risk of prostate cancer.[8][9][10]
While the available evidence is weak,[11] tentative results suggest that frequent ejaculation may decrease the risk of prostate cancer.[12] A study, over eight years, showed that those that ejaculated most frequently (over 21 times per month on average) were less likely to get prostate cancer.[13] The results were broadly similar to the findings of a smaller Australian study.[14]
References
- ↑ Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedCainiGandini2014 - ↑ Urisman A, Molinaro RJ, Fischer N, Plummer SJ, Casey G, Klein EA, Malathi K, Magi-Galluzzi C, Tubbs RR, Ganem D, Silverman RH, DeRisi JL (March 2006). "Identification of a Novel Gammaretrovirus in Prostate Tumors of Patients Homozygous for R462Q RNASEL Variant". PLoS Pathog. 2 (3): e25. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0020025. PMC 1434790. PMID 16609730. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Schlaberg R, Choe DJ, Brown KR, Thaker HM, Singh IR (September 2009). "XMRV is present in malignant prostatic epithelium and is associated with prostate cancer, especially high-grade tumors". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106 (38): 16351–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906922106. PMC 2739868. PMID 19805305.
- ↑ Hohn O, Krause H, Barbarotto P, Niederstadt L, Beimforde N, Denner J, Miller K, Kurth R, Bannert N (2009). "Lack of evidence for xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) in German prostate cancer patients". Retrovirology. 6: 92. doi:10.1186/1742-4690-6-92. PMC 2770519. PMID 19835577.
- ↑ Lee D, Das Gupta J, Gaughan C, Steffen I, Tang N, Luk KC, Qiu X, Urisman A, Fischer N, Molinaro R, Broz M, Schochetman G, Klein EA, Ganem D, Derisi JL, Simmons G, Hackett J, Silverman RH, Chiu CY (2012). Tachedjian, Gilda, ed. "In-Depth Investigation of Archival and Prospectively Collected Samples Reveals No Evidence for XMRV Infection in Prostate Cancer". PLoS ONE. 7 (9): e44954. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044954. PMC 3445615. PMID 23028701. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Alberts B (Dec 23, 2011). "Retraction". Science. 334 (6063): 1636. doi:10.1126/science.334.6063.1636-a. PMID 22194552. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Ross, Susan, ed. (September 2012). "Retraction. Identification of a novel gammaretrovirus in prostate tumors of patients homozygous for R462Q RNASEL variant". PLoS Pathogens. 8 (9): 10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01–2e9b–4e9b–aef0–87ab0e4e4732. doi:10.1371/annotation/7e2efc01-2e9b-4e9b-aef0-87ab0e4e4732. PMC 3445601. PMID 23028303. open access publication – free to read
- ↑ Dennis LK, Dawson DV (January 2002). "Meta-analysis of measures of sexual activity and prostate cancer". Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.). 13 (1): 72–9. doi:10.1097/00001648-200201000-00012. PMID 11805589.
- ↑ Rosenblatt KA, Wicklund KG, Stanford JL (Jun 15, 2001). "Sexual factors and the risk of prostate cancer". American Journal of Epidemiology. 153 (12): 1152–8. doi:10.1093/aje/153.12.1152. PMID 11415949.
- ↑ Sarma AV, McLaughlin JC, Wallner LP, Dunn RL, Cooney KA, Schottenfeld D, Montie JE, Wei JT (September 2006). "Sexual behavior, sexually transmitted diseases and prostatitis: the risk of prostate cancer in black men". The Journal of Urology. 176 (3): 1108–13. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.04.075. PMID 16890703.
- ↑ Male Reproductive Cancers. Springer New York. 2010. p. 27. ISBN 9781441904508.
- ↑ Scardino, Peter (2005). Comprehensive textbook of genitourinary oncology (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 16. ISBN 9780781749848.
- ↑ Leitzmann, MF; Platz, EA; Stampfer, MJ; Willett, WC; Giovannucci, E (7 April 2004). "Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer". JAMA. 291 (13): 1578–86. doi:10.1001/jama.291.13.1578. PMID 15069045.
- ↑ Giles, GG; Severi, G; English, DR; McCredie, MR; Borland, R; Boyle, P; Hopper, JL (August 2003). "Sexual factors and prostate cancer". BJU international. 92 (3): 211–6. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.2003.04319.x. PMID 12887469.
