Bronchiectasis differential diagnosis

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Hamid Qazi, MD, BSc [2], Saarah T. Alkhairy, M.D.

Overview

Bronchiectasis must be differentiated from other diseases that cause dyspnea and cough, such as COPD, asthma, pneumonia, tuberculosis, chronic sinusitis, lung cancer, postnasal drip and inhaled foreign body.

Bronchiectasis Differential Diagnosis

The following table lists the most common differential diagnoses of bronchiectasis based on chronic cough:^[1]^[2]

Organ system		Diseases	Clinical manifestations								Diagnosis				Other features
			Symptoms							Physical exam	Diagnosis
			Onset	Duration	Productive cough	Hemoptysis	Weight lost	Fever	Dyspnea	Ascultation	Lab findings	Imaging	PFT	Gold standard
Respiratory	Upper airway diseases	Laryngopharyngeal reflux^[3]^[4]	Chronic	Variable	+	−	−	−	+	Hoarseness Stridor	Decreased levels of salivary epidermal growth factor (EGF) Increased levels of NKTR Biopsy may be helpful	X−Ray may be helpful Endoscopy examination may be helpful as well	Normal function	24 hour−dual sensor pH probe	Throat clearing Globus sensation
Respiratory	Upper airway diseases	Rhinosinusitis^[5]^[6]	Acute, subacute, chronic, recurrent	Acute: Less than 4 weeks Subacute: 4−12 weeks Chronic: More than 12 weeks Recurrent: 4 or more episodes or acute rhinosinusitis per year	+	−	−	+	+	Clear chest	In complicated acute bacterial rhinosinusitis, endoscopic cultures or sinus aspirate is indicated Nasal culture may also be helpful	Air−fluid level, mucosal edema and bony erosion of sinus on CT MRI for distinguish the etiology	Normal function	Clinical diagnosis: Nasal congestion, obstruction, and purulent rhinorrhea	Erythema in periorbital area
Organ system		Diseases	Clinical manifestations								Diagnosis				Other features
			Symptoms							Physical exam	Diagnosis
			Onset	Duration	Productive cough	Hemoptysis	Weight lost	Fever	Dyspnea	Ascultation	Lab findings	Imaging	PFT	Gold standard
Respiratory	Lower airway	Asthma^[7]	Chronic	Years	+ Clear mucoid or yellow sputum	−	−	−	+	Wheezing (expiratory) Rales Rhonchi	Eosinophilia Total serum IgE in test for allergy may be helpful	Normal airways in chest X−ray CT if there any abnormality in chest X−Ray	FEV1/FVC ratio <70% and FEV1 >15% increase after 15 minutes of 2 puffs of beta 2 sympathomimetic drug After physical active FEV1 decreases by >15% After inhaled corticosteroid (ICS)FEV1 increased by >15%	Airflow limitation on spirometry	Family history Seasonal variation
		Chronic Bronchitis^[8]^[9]	Chronic	Most of the days for three months in the las two years.	+ Clear sputum	−	−	+	+	Wheezing Rhonchi	CBC and ABG may be helpful	Chest X−Ray to exclude other diseases CT may also be helpful	FEV1/FVC ratio < 70% Post bronchodilatador FEV1 > 80% Reduced FVC after bronchodilatador administration Decread vital capacity Increased total lung capacity	Demostration of airflow limitation on spirometry	Smoker's cough Cigarette smoking Pollution
		Non−asthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis^[10]^[11]	Chronic	More than 8 weeks	+ Eosinophilic sputum	−	−	−	+	Wheezing Shortness of breath	High levels of IgE Airway eosinophilia in sputum induction or bronchial wash fluid from bronchoscopy (bronchoalveolar lavage)	Normal chest X−Ray	FEV1/FVC >70% No response of short acting bronchodilator	Bronchial biopsy Eosinophilia	Exposure to an occupational cause
		Bronchiectasis^[12]	Chronic	Months to years	+ Mucopurulent sputum	+	−	−	+	Crackles Wheezing Shortness of breath	Complete blood count (CBC) IgG, IgM and IgA Sputum culture for fungi, bacteria and mycobacteria	Linear atelectasis and dilated airways in chest X−Ray	FEV1/FVC <70% Normal FVC Low levels of FEV1	CT of chest	Digital clubbing Recurrent pleurisy
		Emphysema ^[13]	Chronic	Months to years	+ Mucoid or purulent sputum	−	−	+	+	Shortness of breath Wheezing Prolonged expiration Crackles	Testing for alpha 1−antitrypsin may be helpful	Chest X−Ray to exclude other diseases CT may also be helpful	FEV1/FVC <70% Post bronchodilator FEV1 >80	Detection of early emphysema in CT of chest	Exposure of tobacco and air pollution
Organ system		Diseases	Clinical manifestations								Diagnosis				Other features
			Symptoms							Physical exam	Diagnosis
			Onset	Duration	Productive cough	Hemoptysis	Weight lost	Fever	Dyspnea	Ascultation	Lab findings	Imaging	PFT	Gold standard
Respiratory	Parenchyma	Pneumoconioses^[14]^[15]	Acute, Chronic	Years	−	−	+	+	+	Wheezing Rhonchi Crackles	CBC and ABG may be helpful	Small oppacities and fibrosis observed in chest X−ray CT and FDG−PET may be helpful	FEV1/FVC <70% FEV1 <80%	Exposure history and chest radiograph	Fibrogenic: Silica, asbestos Inert: Iron, barium Granulomatous: Beryllium Giant cell pneumonia: Cobalt
		Lung cancer^[16]^[17]	Chronic	Years	+	+	+	+/−	+	Hoarseness	The following investigations may be helpful: Complete blood count (CBC) ALT, AST Calcium Alkaline phosphatase LDH Creatinine	Contrast−enhanced CT of chest and upper abdomen	Not specific	Tissue biopsy (sample should be sufficient for molecular testing)	Risk factor: Cigarette smoking Types Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) Non−small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)
		Interstitial lung disease^[18]^[19]	Chronic	Variable	−	+	+	−	+	Wheezing Crackles or velcro rales Inspiratory high−pitched rhonchi	The following investigations may be helpful: Hepatic function test Renal function test CBC Serological testing	Nodular, reticular or both pattern in chest X−ray CT in patients with diffuse pulmonary lung disease	Reduction in FVC, RV, FRC, TLC and FEV1 on spirometry FEV1/FVC normal or increase Lung volumes Diffusion capacity (DLCO reduced)	Lung biopsy when lab, imaging, and PFT has indeterminate result	Clubbing is common in asbestosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
		Tuberculosis (TB)^[20]^[21]	Chronic	More than 2 or 3 weeks	+	+	+	+	+	Pleural effusion Crackles Whispered pectoriloquy Decreased fremitus Rhonchi	Sputum acid−fast bacilli (AFB) smear may be positive Mycobacterial culture may be positive Molecular testing may be helpful	Reactivation of TB is observed as infiltration in the upper lobe in chest X−Ray In patients with HIV, Tb is observed as lobar infiltration, adenopathy, lung mass named tuberculoma, small fibronodular lesions, and/or pleural effusion on chest X−Ray CT can detect early nodal process	Decreased FEV1 Reduced FVC	Isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from some secretion	Etiology: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complications: Pneumothorax, bronchiectasis, pulmonary destruction and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis
		Cystic fibrosis (CF)^[22]^[23]	Chronic	Variable	+	−	+	+/−	+	Barrel−shaped chest Wheezing Tachypnea	Respiratory tract culture may be helpful for diagnosing secondary bacterial infection Bronchoalveolar lavage for cytology may be helpful ≥ 60 mmol/L Sweat chloride test CFTR mutation in molecular testing may be positive	Hyperinflation, atelectasis, and infiltrates on chest X−Ray Severe patients present bronchietasis, "tram tracks" peribronchial cuffing in chest X−Ray The extension of bronchietasis can be defined by CT	RV/TLC ratio increased FEV1/FVC ratio <70% Low levels of FEV1 High levels of TLC RV increased	Sweat chloride test	Evidence of CFTR dysfunction
Organ system		Diseases	Clinical manifestations								Diagnosis				Other features
			Symptoms							Physical exam	Diagnosis
			Onset	Duration	Productive cough	Hemoptysis	Weight lost	Fever	Dyspnea	Ascultation	Lab findings	Imaging	PFT	Gold standard
[[[Heart\|Cardiac]]		Mitral Stenosis^[24]^[25]	Chronic	Variable	+ Pink frothy	+	−	−	+	Crackles Hoarseness	Not specifc	Electrocardiogram may be helpful Enlargement of left atrium and appendage in chest radiograph	FVC reduced	Resting transthoracic echocardiography	Stress testing Cardiac catheterization
[[[Heart\|Cardiac]]		Pulmonary hypertension^[26]^[27]	Chronic	More than 2 years	−	+	+	−	+	Hoarseness	The following investigations may be helpful: HIV serology Antinuclear antibody (ANA) Rheumatoid factor (RF) Anti−neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)	Enlargement of the central pulmonary artery and right heart in chest X−Ray Pulmonary artery systolic pressure can be estimated in echocardiography	Low levels of FEV1 Decreased FVC DLCO reduced	Mean pulmonary artery pressure more than 25 mmHg at rest	Chest pain Ascites Syncope Peripherial edema
Gastrointestinal		Gastroesophageal reflux^[28]^[29]	Chronic	Variable	+	−	+	−	+	Wheezing Hoarseness	Not specific	Upper endoscopy may be helpful Barium esophagram may be helpful	Normal function	PH testing	−−
Organ system		Diseases	Clinical manifestations								Diagnosis				Other features
			Symptoms							Physical exam	Diagnosis
			Onset	Duration	Productive cough	Hemoptysis	Weight lost	Fever	Dyspnea	Ascultation	Lab findings	Imaging	PFT	Gold standard
Autoimmune		Goodpasture syndrome^[30]^[31]	Chronic	Variable	−	+	−	−	+	Shortness of breath	The following investigations may be helpful: Complete blood count (CBC) ANCA positive Anti−GBM in ELISA or western blot	Pulmonary infiltratation in chest X−Ray CT scan for parenchymal involvement	Increased DLCO Decreased TLC Decreased FVC	Renal biopsy	Hematuria Proteinuria
		Wegener's disease (GPA) ^[32]^[33]	Chronic	Months	+	+	+	+	+	Hoarseness Stridor Wheezing	The following investigations may be helpful: ANCA, P−ANCA, C−ANCA BUN Creatinine Complete blood count Urinalysis Lung biopsy	Nodules, pulmonary infiltrates, reticular margins, pleural opacities and cavities in chest X−Ray Nodules, cavities and stellate−shaped peripherial pulmonary in chest CT Bronchoscopy may be helpful	Low levels of DLCO Reduce lung volumes	Tissue biopsy	Nasal crusting, sinus pain, chronic rhinosinusitis, nasal obstruction and discharge in upper airway Saddle nose deformity Purpura in lower extremities
		Sarcoidosis^[34]^[35]	Chronic	Years	−	−	+	+	+	Wheezing Squeaky sounds	The following investigations may be helpful: Complete blood count (CBC) Urinalysis BUN Liver function test Calcium Alkaline phosphatase levels Electrolytes Histopathologic detection	On chest X−Ray: Stage 1: Bilateral hiliar adenopathy Stage 2: Reticular opacities and hiliar adenopathy Stage 3: Shrink hiliar nodules and reticular opacities Stage 4: Lost of volume	Reduced FVC Decreased of TLC	Clinical diagnosis, histopathologic detection of noncaseating granulomas and exclusion of other diseases	Young adults Skin, joint and eye lesions
		Microscopic polyangitis (MPA)^[36]	Chronic	Variable	+	+	+	+	+	Hoarseness Stridor Wheezing	The following investigations may be helpful: ANCA positive BUN Creatinine Complete blood count Urinalysis	Cavitation, nodules, and alveolar opacities in chest X−ray Head and chest CT may be helpful Electromyography/nerve conduction study may also be helpful	Reduced lung volumes	Tissue biopsy	Nerve damage Rhinosinusitis Purpura involving lower extremities
		Churg−Strauss^[37]^[38]	Chronic	Variable	+	+	+	+	+	Wheezing Rales Rhonchi Expiratory sounds(related to asthma)	Peripherial eosinophilia In active phase CRP and erytrocyte sedimentation rate high Elevated IgE ANCA positive	Infiltrates in chest X−Ray Ground glass opacities, tree−in−bud sign and small nodules in chest CT	Lung volumes decreased FVC reduced FEV1/FVC ratio <70%	Tissue biopsy	Asthma Eosinophilia Rhinosinusitis

Cough

The differential diagnosis according to cough for bronchiectasis is shown in the table below:

Organ system		Diseases	Clinical manifestations								Diagnosis				Other features
			Symptoms							Physical exam	Diagnosis
			Onset	Duration	Productive cough	Hemoptysis	Weight lost	Fever	Dyspnea	Ascultation	Lab findings	Imaging	PFT	Gold standard
Respiratory	Upper airway diseases	Epiglottitis^[39]^[40]	Abrupt or acute	12-24 hours	-	-	-	✔	✔	Stridor Hoarseness	Elevated white blood count in CBC Blood culture may show bacterial growth Epiglottal culture in intubated patients may show bacterial growth	Enlarge epiglottis (>8 mm), loss of vallecular air space and distended hypopharynx in neck X-ray	Normal function	Direct visualization of erythematous and edematous epiglottis	Tripod posture Drooling Tenderness of the anterior part of the neck Etiology: Haemophilus influenzae
		Croup^[41]	Acute	3-5 days	✔	-	-	-	✔	Stridor Crackles	Low White blood cell count (WBC) in CBC	Subglottic narrowing (steeple sign) in postero-anterior radiograph chest	Decresed tidal volume	Clinical diagnosis. Laboratory findings and imaging are not necessary for diagnosis	Barking cough Etiology: Parainfluenza virus type 1 (most common)
		Pertussis^[42]^[43]	Acute	Two weeks	✔ Whooping sound	-	✔	-	✔	Clear chest	Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) shows Bordetella pertussis Serologic testing	Atelectasis Lymphadenopathy	Normal function	Culture	Etiology: Bordetella pertussis Phases: Catarrhal, paroxysmal and convalescent
		Laryngopharyngeal reflux^[3]^[4]	Chronic	Variable	✔	-	-	-	✔	Hoarseness Stridor	Decreased levels of salivary epidermal growth factor (EGF) Increased levels of NKTR Biopsy	X-Ray Endoscopy examination	Normal function	24 hour-dual sensor pH probe	Throat clearing Globus sensation
		Common Cold^[44]	Acute	3-10 days	✔	-	-	✔	-	Rales Wheezing	Bacterial culture is not indicated	Chest X-Ray in patients with signs of consolidation	Normal function	Clinical diagnosis	Conjunctival injection Nasal congestion
		Seasonal Influenza ^[45]	Acute	5-10 days	-	-	-	✔	✔	Shorteness of breath	RT-PCR Antigen detection test	Reticular or reticulonodular opacities in chest X-Ray	Normal function	Clinical diagnosis	Etiology: A or B Influenza virus
		Rhinosinusitis^[5]^[6]	Acute, subacute, chronic, recurrent	Acute: Less than 4 weeks Subacute: 4-12 weeks Chronic: More than 12 weeks Recurrent: 4 or more episodes or acute rhinosinusitis per year	✔	-	-	✔	✔	Clear chest	In complicated acute bacterial rhinosinusitis, endoscopic cultures or sinus aspirate is indicated Nasal culture	Air-fluid level, mucosal edema and bony erosion of sinus on CT MRI for distinguish the etiology	Normal function	Clinical diagnosis: Nasal congestion, obstruction, and purulent rhinorrhea	Erythema in periorbital area
	Lower airway	Asthma^[7]	Chronic	Years	✔ Clear mucoid or yellow sputum	-	-	-	✔	Wheezing (expiratory) Rales Rhonchi	Eosinophilia is observed in complete blood count (CBC) Total serum IgE in test for allergy	Normal airways in chest X-ray CT if there any abnormality in chest X-Ray	FEV1/FVC ratio <70% and FEV1 >15% increase after 15 minutes of 2 puffs of beta 2 sympathomimetic drug After physical active FEV1 decreases by >15% After inhaled corticosteroid (ICS)FEV1 increased by >15%	Airflow limitation on spirometry	Family history Seasonal variation
		Acute Bronchitis^[46]	Acute	From 5 days to 1 or 3 weeks	✔	-	-	-	✔	Wheezing Rhonchi	Sputum culture is not indicated PCR in bacterial infection	Chest X-ray to exclude other diseases	FEV1 < 80%	Clinical diagnosis	Majority of cases are caused by respiratory viruses
		Chronic Bronchitis^[8]^[9]	Chronic	Most of the days for three months in the las two years.	✔ Clear sputum	-	-	✔	✔	Wheezing Rhonchi	Blood test Arterial blood gas (ABG)	Chest X-Ray to exclude other diseases CT	FEV1/FVC ratio < 70% Post bronchodilatador FEV1 > 80% Reduced FVC after bronchodilatador administration Decread vital capacity Increased total lung capacity	Demostration of airflow limitation on spirometry	Smoker's cough Cigarette smoking Pollution
		Non-asthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis^[10]^[11]	Chronic	More than 8 weeks	✔ Eosinophilic sputum		-	-	✔	Wheezing Shortness of breath	High levels of IgE Airway eosinophilia in sputum induction or bronchial wash fluid from bronchoscopy (bronchoalveolar lavage)	Normal chest X-Ray	FEV1/FVC >70% No response of short acting bronchodilator	Bronchial biopsy eosinophilia	Exposure to an occupational cause
		Bronchiectasis^[12]	Chronic	Months to years	✔ Mucopurulent sputum	✔		-	✔	Crackles Wheezing Shortness of breath	Complete blood count (CBC) IgG, IgM and IgA Sputum culture for fungi, bacteria and mycobacteria	Linear atelectasis and dilated airways in chest X-Ray	FEV1/FVC <70% Normal FVC Low levels of FEV1	CT of chest	Digital clubbing Recurrent pleurisy
		Emphysema ^[13]	Chronic	Months to years	✔ Mucoid or purulent sputum	-	-	✔	✔	Shortness of breath Wheezing Prolonged expiration Crackles	Blood test Testing for alpha 1-antitrypsin	Chest X-Ray to exclude other diseases CT	FEV1/FVC <70% Post bronchodilator FEV1 >80	Detection of early emphysema in CT of chest	Exposure of tobacco and air pollution
		Foreing body aspiration^[47]^[48]^[49]	Acute	Variable	✔	✔	-	✔	✔	Wheezing Decreased breath sounds	No specific	Hyperinflated lungs, atelectasis, and mediastinitis Shift in chest radiograph when the object is radio-opaque CT	Not specific	Bronchoscopy	In children <1 year and adults >75 years Organic materials in children Inorganic materials in adults
		Bronchiolitis^[50]^[51]	Acute	8-15 days	✔	-		✔	✔	Wheezing Crackles Increased respiratory rate	Complete blood count (CBC) Urinalysis (in infants) Urine culture ( in infants)	Chest X-Ray	Normal function or obstructive changes (FEV1/FVC <70%) Air trapping in Lung volumes Reduced Diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide ( DLCO)	Clinical diagnosis	Etiology: Respiratory syncytial virus, Rhinovirus Children <2 years
	Parenchyma	Pneumonia^[52]^[53]	Acute	Variable	✔ Mucopurulent sputum	-	-	✔	✔	Crackles Egophony Decreased bronchial sounds	Leftward shift leukocytosis Blood culture in hospitalized patients Sputum culture in hospitalized patients	Consolidation, cavitation, and infiltrated interstitial in chest X-ray Anatomical changes observed in chest CT	Not specific	Infiltration observed in chest X-ray	Community-acquired pneumonia Healthcare-associated pneumonia
		Pneumoconioses^[14]^[15]	Acute, Chronic	Years	-	-	✔	✔	✔	Wheezing Rhonchi Crackles	Arterial blood gas Complete blood count (CBC)	Small oppacities and fibrosis observed in chest X-ray CT FDG-PET	FEV1/FVC <70% FEV1 <80%	Exposure history and chest radiograph	Fibrogenic: Silica, asbestos Inert: Iron, barium Granulomatous: Beryllium Giant cell pneumonia: Cobalt
		Lung cancer^[16]^[17]	Chronic	Years	✔	✔	✔	-	✔	Hoarseness	Complete blood count (CBC) ALT, AST Calcium Alkaline phosphatase LDH Creatinine	Contrast-enhanced CT of chest and upper abdomen	Not specific	Tissue biopsy (sample should be sufficient for molecular testing)	Risk factor: Cigarette smoking Types Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)
		Interstitial lung disease^[18]^[19]	Chronic	Variable	-	✔	✔	-	✔	Wheezing Crackles or velcro rales Inspiratory high-pitched rhonchi	Test for hepatic and renal function Hematologic test in differential CBC Serological testing	Nodular, reticular or both pattern in chest X-ray CT in patients with diffuse pulmonary lung disease	Reduction in FVC, RV, FRC, TLC and FEV1 on spirometry FEV1/FVC normal or increase Lung volumes Diffusion capacity (DLCO reduced)	Lung biopsy when lab, imaging, and PFT has indeterminate result	Clubbing is common in asbestosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
		Tuberculosis (TB)^[20]^[21]	Chronic	More than 2 or 3 weeks	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	Pleural effusion Crackles Whispered pectoriloquy Decreased fremitus Rhonchi	Sputum acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear Mycobacterial culture Molecular testing	Reactivation of TB is observed as infiltration in the upper lobe in chest X-Ray In patients with HIV, Tb is observed as lobar infiltration, adenopathy, lung mass named tuberculoma, small fibronodular lesions, and/or pleural effusion chest X-Ray CT can detect early nodal process	Decreased FEV1 Reduced FVC	Isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from some secretion	Etiology: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complications: Pneumothorax, bronchiectasis, pulmonary destruction and chronic pulmonary aspergillosis
		Cystic fibrosis (CF)^[22]^[23]	Chronic	Variable	✔	-	✔		✔	Barrel-shaped chest Wheezing Tachypnea	Respiratory tract culture for CF Bronchoalveolar lavage for cytology ≥ 60 mmol/L Sweat chloride test CFTR mutation in molecular testing	Hyperinflation, atelectasis, and infiltrates on chest X-Ray Severe patients present bronchietasis, "tram tracks" peribronchial cuffing in chest X-Ray The extension of bronchietasis can be defined by CT	RV/TLC ratio increased FEV1/FVC ratio <70% Low levels of FEV1 High levels of TLC RV increased	Sweat chloride test	Evidence of CFTR dysfunction
Cardiac		Cardiogenic pulmonary edema^[54]^[55]	Acute	Days to weeks	✔ Pink frothy, liquid	-	✔	-	✔	Crackles Increased respiratory rate Wheezing Rhonchi Gurgling sounds	Arterial blood gas BUN Serum creatinin Serum troponin Electrolytes Lactic acid Complete blood count	Cardiomegaly, pleural effusion, interstitial edema, alveolar edema and blood redistribution in lower lobes in chest X-ray	Not specific	Clinical diagnosis Tests are supportive	12-lead ECG Plasma BNP and NT-proBNP Echocardiography
		Mitral Stenosis^[24]^[25]	Chronic	Variable	✔ Pink frothy	✔	-	-	✔	Crackles Hoarseness	Not specifc	Electrocardiogram Enlargement of left atrium and appendage in chest radiograph	FVC reduced	Resting transthoracic echocardiography	Stress testing Cardiac catheterization
		Pulmonary hypertension^[26]^[27]	Chronic	More than 2 years	-	✔	✔	-	✔	Hoarseness	HIV serology Antinuclear antibody (ANA) Rheumatoid factor (RF) Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)	Enlargement of the central pulmonary artery and right heart in chest X-Ray Pulmonary artery systolic pressure can be estimated in echocardiography	Low levels of FEV1 Decreased FVC DLCO reduced	Mean pulmonary artery pressure more than 25 mmHg at rest	Chest pain Ascites Syncope Peripherial edema
Gastrointestinal		Gastroesophageal reflux^[28]^[29]	Chronic	Variable	✔	-	✔	-	✔	Wheezing Hoarseness	Not specific	Upper endoscopy Barium esophagram	Normal function	PH testing	--
Autoinmune		Goodpasture syndrome^[30]^[31]	Chronic	Variable	-	✔	-	-	✔	Shortness of breath	Complete blood count (CBC) ANCA positive Anti-GBM in ELISA or western blot	Pulmonary infiltratation in chest X-Ray CT parenchimal envolment	Increased DLCO Decreased TLC Decreased FVC	Renal biopsy	Hematuria Proteinuria
		Wegener's disease (GPA) ^[32]^[33]	Chronic	Months	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	Hoarseness Stridor Wheezing	ANCA, P-ANCA, C-ANCA BUN Creatinine Complete blood count Urinalysis Lung biopsy	Nodules, pulmonary infiltrates, reticular margins, pleural opacities and cavities in chest X-Ray Nodules, cavities and stellate-shaped peripherial pulmonary in chest CT Bronchoscopy	Low levels of DLCO Reduce lung volumes	Tissue biopsy	Nasal crusting, sinus pain, chronic rhinosinusitis, nasal obstruction and discharge in upper airway Saddle nose deformity Purpura in lower extremities
		Sarcoidosis^[34]^[35]	Chronic	Years	-	-	✔	✔	✔	Wheezing Squeaky sounds	Complete blood count (CBC) Urinalysis BUN Liver function test Calcium Alkaline phosphatase levels Electrolytes Histopathologic detection	On chest X-Ray: Stage 1: Bilateral hiliar adenopathy Stage 2: Reticular opacities and hiliar adenopathy Stage 3: Shrink hiliar nodules and reticular opacities Stage 4: Lost of volume	Reduced FVC Decreased of TLC	Clinical diagnosis, histopathologic detection of noncaseating granulomas and exclusion of other diseases	Young adults Skin, joint and eye lesions
		Microscopic polyangitis (MPA)^[36]	Chronic	Variable	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	Hoarseness Stridor Wheezing	ANCA positive BUN Creatinine Complete blood count Urinalysis	Cavitation, nodules, and alveolar opacities in chest X-ray Head and chest CT Electromyography/nerve conduction study	Reduced lung volumes	Tissue biopsy	Nerve damage Rhinosinusitis Purpura involving lower extremities
		Churg-Strauss^[37]^[38]	Chronic	Variable	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	Wheezing Rales Rhonchi Expiratory sounds(related to asthma)	Peripherial eosinophilia In active phase CRP and erytrocyte sedimentation rate high High levels of IgE ANCA positive	Infiltrates in chest X-Ray Ground glass opacities, tree-in-bud sign and small nodules in chest CT	Lung volumes decreased FVC reduced FEV1/FVC ratio <70%	Tissue biopsy	Asthma Eosinophilia Rhinosinusitis
Medication		ACE inhibitors^[56]^[57]	Acute (depend on the medication)	From 2 weeks to 6 months	-	-	-	-	✔	Wheezing	Not required	No required	Normal function	Clinical diagnosis	Resolves in four to five days of stopping the medication Angioedema

Features that may suggest bronchiectasis in a patient presenting with chronic respiratory symptoms

Digital clubbing
Lack of a significant smoking history (if COPD is suspected)
History of recurrent and/or severe pneumonia or tuberculosis
Presence of either Aspergillus, atypical/nontuberculous Mycobacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, or Klebsiella pneumoniae in the sputum

References

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↑ Morrissey BM (2007). "Pathogenesis of bronchiectasis". Clin Chest Med. 28 (2): 289–96. PMID 17467548.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 "What is LPR? | American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery".
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 Noordzij JP, Khidr A, Desper E, Meek RB, Reibel JF, Levine PA (2002). "Correlation of pH probe-measured laryngopharyngeal reflux with symptoms and signs of reflux laryngitis". Laryngoscope. 112 (12): 2192–5. doi:10.1097/00005537-200212000-00013. PMID 12461340.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Meltzer EO, Hamilos DL (2011). "Rhinosinusitis diagnosis and management for the clinician: a synopsis of recent consensus guidelines". Mayo Clin Proc. 86 (5): 427–43. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0392. PMC 3084646. PMID 21490181.
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Ashok Kumar K, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD (2015). "Clinical practice guideline (update): adult sinusitis". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 152 (2 Suppl): S1–S39. doi:10.1177/0194599815572097. PMID 25832968.
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 Ukena D, Fishman L, Niebling WB (2008). "Bronchial asthma: diagnosis and long-term treatment in adults". Dtsch Arztebl Int. 105 (21): 385–94. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2008.0385. PMC 2696883. PMID 19626179.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Brusasco V, Martinez F (2014). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Compr Physiol. 4 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1002/cphy.c110037. PMID 24692133.
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 Qaseem A, Snow V, Shekelle P, Sherif K, Wilt TJ, Weinberger S, Owens DK (2007). "Diagnosis and management of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (9): 633–8. PMID 17975186.
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 Brightling CE (2006). "Chronic cough due to nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 116S–121S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.116S. PMID 16428700.
↑ ^11.0 ^11.1 Cho J, Choi SM, Lee J, Park YS, Lee SM, Yoo CG; et al. (2018). "Clinical Outcome of Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation in Chronic Airway Diseases Including Nonasthmatic Eosinophilic Bronchitis". Sci Rep. 8 (1): 146. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18265-2. PMC 5760521. PMID 29317659.
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 King PT, Holdsworth SR, Freezer NJ, Villanueva E, Holmes PW (2006). "Characterisation of the onset and presenting clinical features of adult bronchiectasis". Respir Med. 100 (12): 2183–9. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2006.03.012. PMID 16650970.
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 Rossi A, Butorac-Petanjek B, Chilosi M, Cosío BG, Flezar M, Koulouris N; et al. (2017). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with mild airflow limitation: current knowledge and proposal for future research - a consensus document from six scientific societies". Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 12: 2593–2610. doi:10.2147/COPD.S132236. PMC 5587130. PMID 28919728.
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 Jp NA, Imanaka M, Suganuma N (2017). "Japanese workplace health management in pneumoconiosis prevention". J Occup Health. 59 (2): 91–103. doi:10.1539/joh.16-0031-RA. PMC 5478517. PMID 27980247.
↑ ^15.0 ^15.1 Weiland DA, Lynch DA, Jensen SP, Newell JD, Miller DE, Crausman RS, Kuhn C, Kern DG (2003). "Thin-section CT findings in flock worker's lung, a work-related interstitial lung disease". Radiology. 227 (1): 222–31. doi:10.1148/radiol.2271011063. PMID 12668748.
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D (2011). "Global cancer statistics". CA Cancer J Clin. 61 (2): 69–90. doi:10.3322/caac.20107. PMID 21296855.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 Ost DE, Jim Yeung SC, Tanoue LT, Gould MK (2013). "Clinical and organizational factors in the initial evaluation of patients with lung cancer: Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 143 (5 Suppl): e121S–e141S. doi:10.1378/chest.12-2352. PMC 4694609. PMID 23649435.
↑ ^18.0 ^18.1 Lama VN, Martinez FJ (2004). "Resting and exercise physiology in interstitial lung diseases". Clin. Chest Med. 25 (3): 435–53, v. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2004.05.005. PMID 15331185.
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 Chetta A, Marangio E, Olivieri D (2004). "Pulmonary function testing in interstitial lung diseases". Respiration. 71 (3): 209–13. doi:10.1159/000077416. PMID 15133338.
↑ ^20.0 ^20.1 Perlman DC, el-Sadr WM, Nelson ET, Matts JP, Telzak EE, Salomon N, Chirgwin K, Hafner R (1997). "Variation of chest radiographic patterns in pulmonary tuberculosis by degree of human immunodeficiency virus-related immunosuppression. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). The AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG)". Clin. Infect. Dis. 25 (2): 242–6. PMID 9332519.
↑ ^21.0 ^21.1 Barnes PF, Verdegem TD, Vachon LA, Leedom JM, Overturf GD (1988). "Chest roentgenogram in pulmonary tuberculosis. New data on an old test". Chest. 94 (2): 316–20. PMID 2456183.
↑ ^22.0 ^22.1 Farrell PM, Rosenstein BJ, White TB, Accurso FJ, Castellani C, Cutting GR, Durie PR, Legrys VA, Massie J, Parad RB, Rock MJ, Campbell PW (2008). "Guidelines for diagnosis of cystic fibrosis in newborns through older adults: Cystic Fibrosis Foundation consensus report". J. Pediatr. 153 (2): S4–S14. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.05.005. PMC 2810958. PMID 18639722.
↑ ^23.0 ^23.1 Kerem E, Reisman J, Corey M, Canny GJ, Levison H (1992). "Prediction of mortality in patients with cystic fibrosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 326 (18): 1187–91. doi:10.1056/NEJM199204303261804. PMID 1285737.
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 MUNROE DS, RALLY CR (1963). "The diagnosis of mitral stenosis". Can Med Assoc J. 88: 611–22. PMC 1921207. PMID 13936649.
↑ ^25.0 ^25.1 Chandrashekhar Y, Westaby S, Narula J (2009). "Mitral stenosis". Lancet. 374 (9697): 1271–83. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60994-6. PMID 19747723.
↑ ^26.0 ^26.1 Brown LM, Chen H, Halpern S, Taichman D, McGoon MD, Farber HW, Frost AE, Liou TG, Turner M, Feldkircher K, Miller DP, Elliott CG (2011). "Delay in recognition of pulmonary arterial hypertension: factors identified from the REVEAL Registry". Chest. 140 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1378/chest.10-1166. PMC 3198486. PMID 21393391.
↑ ^27.0 ^27.1 Sun XG, Hansen JE, Oudiz RJ, Wasserman K (2003). "Pulmonary function in primary pulmonary hypertension". J Am Coll Cardiol. 41 (6): 1028–35. PMID 12651053.
↑ ^28.0 ^28.1 Kahrilas PJ, Hughes N, Howden CW (2011). "Response of unexplained chest pain to proton pump inhibitor treatment in patients with and without objective evidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease". Gut. 60 (11): 1473–8. doi:10.1136/gut.2011.241307. PMID 21508423.
↑ ^29.0 ^29.1 Badillo R, Francis D (2014). "Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease". World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 5 (3): 105–12. doi:10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105. PMC 4133436. PMID 25133039.
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 Boyce NW, Holdsworth SR (1986). "Pulmonary manifestations of the clinical syndrome of acute glomerulonephritis and lung hemorrhage". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 8 (1): 31–6. PMID 3728460.
↑ ^31.0 ^31.1 Foster MH (2017). "Basement membranes and autoimmune diseases". Matrix Biol. 57-58: 149–168. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2016.07.008. PMC 5290253. PMID 27496347.
↑ ^32.0 ^32.1 Hoffman GS, Kerr GS, Leavitt RY, Hallahan CW, Lebovics RS, Travis WD, Rottem M, Fauci AS (1992). "Wegener granulomatosis: an analysis of 158 patients". Ann. Intern. Med. 116 (6): 488–98. PMID 1739240.
↑ ^33.0 ^33.1 Falk RJ, Gross WL, Guillevin L, Hoffman GS, Jayne DR, Jennette JC, Kallenberg CG, Luqmani R, Mahr AD, Matteson EL, Merkel PA, Specks U, Watts RA (2011). "Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's): an alternative name for Wegener's granulomatosis". Arthritis Rheum. 63 (4): 863–4. doi:10.1002/art.30286. PMID 21374588.
↑ ^34.0 ^34.1 Carmona EM, Kalra S, Ryu JH (2016). "Pulmonary Sarcoidosis: Diagnosis and Treatment". Mayo Clin. Proc. 91 (7): 946–54. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.03.004. PMID 27378039.
↑ ^35.0 ^35.1 Yanardağ H, Pamuk GE, Karayel T, Demirci S (2002). "Bone marrow involvement in sarcoidosis: an analysis of 50 bone marrow samples". Haematologia (Budap). 32 (4): 419–25. PMID 12803116.
↑ ^36.0 ^36.1 Jennette, J. Charles; Falk, Ronald J. (1997). "Small-Vessel Vasculitis". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (21): 1512–1523. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711203372106. ISSN 0028-4793.
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 Vaglio A, Buzio C, Zwerina J (2013). "Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg-Strauss): state of the art". Allergy. 68 (3): 261–73. doi:10.1111/all.12088. PMID 23330816.
↑ ^38.0 ^38.1 Lanham JG, Elkon KB, Pusey CD, Hughes GR (1984). "Systemic vasculitis with asthma and eosinophilia: a clinical approach to the Churg-Strauss syndrome". Medicine (Baltimore). 63 (2): 65–81. PMID 6366453.
↑ Stroud RH, Friedman NR (2001). "An update on inflammatory disorders of the pediatric airway: epiglottitis, croup, and tracheitis". Am J Otolaryngol. 22 (4): 268–75. doi:10.1053/ajot.2001.24825. PMID 11464324.
↑ Solomon P, Weisbrod M, Irish JC, Gullane PJ (1998). "Adult epiglottitis: the Toronto Hospital experience". J Otolaryngol. 27 (6): 332–6. PMID 9857318.
↑ Cherry, James D. (2008). "Croup". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (4): 384–391. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp072022. ISSN 0028-4793.
↑ Bellamy EA, Johnston ID, Wilson AG (1987). "The chest radiograph in whooping cough". Clin Radiol. 38 (1): 39–43. PMID 3816065.
↑ "Pertussis | Whooping Cough | Clinical | Information | CDC".
↑ Eccles R (2005). "Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza". Lancet Infect Dis. 5 (11): 718–25. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X. PMID 16253889.
↑ Kim EA, Lee KS, Primack SL, Yoon HK, Byun HS, Kim TS, Suh GY, Kwon OJ, Han J (2002). "Viral pneumonias in adults: radiologic and pathologic findings". Radiographics. 22 Spec No: S137–49. doi:10.1148/radiographics.22.suppl_1.g02oc15s137. PMID 12376607.
↑ Wenzel RP, Fowler AA (2006). "Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (20): 2125–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp061493. PMID 17108344.
↑ Hewlett JC, Rickman OB, Lentz RJ, Prakash UB, Maldonado F (2017). "Foreign body aspiration in adult airways: therapeutic approach". J Thorac Dis. 9 (9): 3398–3409. doi:10.21037/jtd.2017.06.137. PMC 5708401. PMID 29221325.
↑ Rafanan AL, Mehta AC (2001). "Adult airway foreign body removal. What's new?". Clin. Chest Med. 22 (2): 319–30. PMID 11444115.
↑ Haddadi S, Marzban S, Nemati S, Ranjbar Kiakelayeh S, Parvizi A, Heidarzadeh A (2015). "Tracheobronchial Foreign-Bodies in Children; A 7 Year Retrospective Study". Iran J Otorhinolaryngol. 27 (82): 377–85. PMC 4639691. PMID 26568942.
↑ Bordley WC, Viswanathan M, King VJ, Sutton SF, Jackman AM, Sterling L, Lohr KN (2004). "Diagnosis and testing in bronchiolitis: a systematic review". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 158 (2): 119–26. doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.2.119. PMID 14757603.
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↑ Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File Jr TM, Musher DM, Fine MJ (2000). "Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Infectious Diseases Society of America". Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 (2): 347–82. doi:10.1086/313954. PMID 10987697.
↑ Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM, Musher DM, Niederman MS, Torres A, Whitney CG (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clin. Infect. Dis. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083.
↑ Gheorghiade M, Zannad F, Sopko G, Klein L, Piña IL, Konstam MA, Massie BM, Roland E, Targum S, Collins SP, Filippatos G, Tavazzi L (2005). "Acute heart failure syndromes: current state and framework for future research". Circulation. 112 (25): 3958–68. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.590091. PMID 16365214.
↑ Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Butler J, Casey DE, Drazner MH, Fonarow GC, Geraci SA, Horwich T, Januzzi JL, Johnson MR, Kasper EK, Levy WC, Masoudi FA, McBride PE, McMurray JJ, Mitchell JE, Peterson PN, Riegel B, Sam F, Stevenson LW, Tang WH, Tsai EJ, Wilkoff BL (2013). "2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines". Circulation. 128 (16): e240–327. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e31829e8776. PMID 23741058.
↑ Israili ZH, Hall WD (1992). "Cough and angioneurotic edema associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy. A review of the literature and pathophysiology". Ann. Intern. Med. 117 (3): 234–42. PMID 1616218.
↑ Wood R (1995). "Bronchospasm and cough as adverse reactions to the ACE inhibitors captopril, enalapril and lisinopril. A controlled retrospective cohort study". Br J Clin Pharmacol. 39 (3): 265–70. PMC 1365002. PMID 7619667.

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[O'Donnell2008-1] O'Donnell, Anne E. (2008). "Bronchiectasis". Chest. 134 (4): 815–823. doi:10.1378/chest.08-0776. ISSN 0012-3692.

[2] Morrissey BM (2007). "Pathogenesis of bronchiectasis". Clin Chest Med. 28 (2): 289–96. PMID 17467548.

[urlWhat_is_LPR?_|_American_Academy_of_Otolaryngology-Head_and_Neck_Surgery-3] 3.0 ^3.1 "What is LPR? | American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery".

[pmid12461340-4] 4.0 ^4.1 Noordzij JP, Khidr A, Desper E, Meek RB, Reibel JF, Levine PA (2002). "Correlation of pH probe-measured laryngopharyngeal reflux with symptoms and signs of reflux laryngitis". Laryngoscope. 112 (12): 2192–5. doi:10.1097/00005537-200212000-00013. PMID 12461340.

[pmid21490181-5] 5.0 ^5.1 Meltzer EO, Hamilos DL (2011). "Rhinosinusitis diagnosis and management for the clinician: a synopsis of recent consensus guidelines". Mayo Clin Proc. 86 (5): 427–43. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0392. PMC 3084646. PMID 21490181.

[pmid25832968-6] 6.0 ^6.1 Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Ashok Kumar K, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD (2015). "Clinical practice guideline (update): adult sinusitis". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 152 (2 Suppl): S1–S39. doi:10.1177/0194599815572097. PMID 25832968.

[pmid19626179-7] 7.0 ^7.1 Ukena D, Fishman L, Niebling WB (2008). "Bronchial asthma: diagnosis and long-term treatment in adults". Dtsch Arztebl Int. 105 (21): 385–94. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2008.0385. PMC 2696883. PMID 19626179.

[pmid24692133-8] 8.0 ^8.1 Brusasco V, Martinez F (2014). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Compr Physiol. 4 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1002/cphy.c110037. PMID 24692133.

[pmid17975186-9] 9.0 ^9.1 Qaseem A, Snow V, Shekelle P, Sherif K, Wilt TJ, Weinberger S, Owens DK (2007). "Diagnosis and management of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (9): 633–8. PMID 17975186.

[pmid16428700-10] 10.0 ^10.1 Brightling CE (2006). "Chronic cough due to nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 116S–121S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.116S. PMID 16428700.

[pmid29317659-11] 11.0 ^11.1 Cho J, Choi SM, Lee J, Park YS, Lee SM, Yoo CG; et al. (2018). "Clinical Outcome of Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation in Chronic Airway Diseases Including Nonasthmatic Eosinophilic Bronchitis". Sci Rep. 8 (1): 146. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18265-2. PMC 5760521. PMID 29317659.

[pmid166509702-12] 12.0 ^12.1 King PT, Holdsworth SR, Freezer NJ, Villanueva E, Holmes PW (2006). "Characterisation of the onset and presenting clinical features of adult bronchiectasis". Respir Med. 100 (12): 2183–9. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2006.03.012. PMID 16650970.

[pmid28919728-13] 13.0 ^13.1 Rossi A, Butorac-Petanjek B, Chilosi M, Cosío BG, Flezar M, Koulouris N; et al. (2017). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with mild airflow limitation: current knowledge and proposal for future research - a consensus document from six scientific societies". Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 12: 2593–2610. doi:10.2147/COPD.S132236. PMC 5587130. PMID 28919728.

[pmid27980247-14] 14.0 ^14.1 Jp NA, Imanaka M, Suganuma N (2017). "Japanese workplace health management in pneumoconiosis prevention". J Occup Health. 59 (2): 91–103. doi:10.1539/joh.16-0031-RA. PMC 5478517. PMID 27980247.

[pmid12668748-15] 15.0 ^15.1 Weiland DA, Lynch DA, Jensen SP, Newell JD, Miller DE, Crausman RS, Kuhn C, Kern DG (2003). "Thin-section CT findings in flock worker's lung, a work-related interstitial lung disease". Radiology. 227 (1): 222–31. doi:10.1148/radiol.2271011063. PMID 12668748.

[pmid21296855-16] 16.0 ^16.1 Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D (2011). "Global cancer statistics". CA Cancer J Clin. 61 (2): 69–90. doi:10.3322/caac.20107. PMID 21296855.

[pmid23649435-17] 17.0 ^17.1 Ost DE, Jim Yeung SC, Tanoue LT, Gould MK (2013). "Clinical and organizational factors in the initial evaluation of patients with lung cancer: Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 143 (5 Suppl): e121S–e141S. doi:10.1378/chest.12-2352. PMC 4694609. PMID 23649435.

[pmid15331185-18] 18.0 ^18.1 Lama VN, Martinez FJ (2004). "Resting and exercise physiology in interstitial lung diseases". Clin. Chest Med. 25 (3): 435–53, v. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2004.05.005. PMID 15331185.

[pmid15133338-19] 19.0 ^19.1 Chetta A, Marangio E, Olivieri D (2004). "Pulmonary function testing in interstitial lung diseases". Respiration. 71 (3): 209–13. doi:10.1159/000077416. PMID 15133338.

[pmid9332519-20] 20.0 ^20.1 Perlman DC, el-Sadr WM, Nelson ET, Matts JP, Telzak EE, Salomon N, Chirgwin K, Hafner R (1997). "Variation of chest radiographic patterns in pulmonary tuberculosis by degree of human immunodeficiency virus-related immunosuppression. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). The AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG)". Clin. Infect. Dis. 25 (2): 242–6. PMID 9332519.

[pmid2456183-21] 21.0 ^21.1 Barnes PF, Verdegem TD, Vachon LA, Leedom JM, Overturf GD (1988). "Chest roentgenogram in pulmonary tuberculosis. New data on an old test". Chest. 94 (2): 316–20. PMID 2456183.

[pmid18639722-22] 22.0 ^22.1 Farrell PM, Rosenstein BJ, White TB, Accurso FJ, Castellani C, Cutting GR, Durie PR, Legrys VA, Massie J, Parad RB, Rock MJ, Campbell PW (2008). "Guidelines for diagnosis of cystic fibrosis in newborns through older adults: Cystic Fibrosis Foundation consensus report". J. Pediatr. 153 (2): S4–S14. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.05.005. PMC 2810958. PMID 18639722.

[pmid1285737-23] 23.0 ^23.1 Kerem E, Reisman J, Corey M, Canny GJ, Levison H (1992). "Prediction of mortality in patients with cystic fibrosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 326 (18): 1187–91. doi:10.1056/NEJM199204303261804. PMID 1285737.

[pmid13936649-24] 24.0 ^24.1 MUNROE DS, RALLY CR (1963). "The diagnosis of mitral stenosis". Can Med Assoc J. 88: 611–22. PMC 1921207. PMID 13936649.

[pmid19747723-25] 25.0 ^25.1 Chandrashekhar Y, Westaby S, Narula J (2009). "Mitral stenosis". Lancet. 374 (9697): 1271–83. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60994-6. PMID 19747723.

[pmid21393391-26] 26.0 ^26.1 Brown LM, Chen H, Halpern S, Taichman D, McGoon MD, Farber HW, Frost AE, Liou TG, Turner M, Feldkircher K, Miller DP, Elliott CG (2011). "Delay in recognition of pulmonary arterial hypertension: factors identified from the REVEAL Registry". Chest. 140 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1378/chest.10-1166. PMC 3198486. PMID 21393391.

[pmid12651053-27] 27.0 ^27.1 Sun XG, Hansen JE, Oudiz RJ, Wasserman K (2003). "Pulmonary function in primary pulmonary hypertension". J Am Coll Cardiol. 41 (6): 1028–35. PMID 12651053.

[pmid21508423-28] 28.0 ^28.1 Kahrilas PJ, Hughes N, Howden CW (2011). "Response of unexplained chest pain to proton pump inhibitor treatment in patients with and without objective evidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease". Gut. 60 (11): 1473–8. doi:10.1136/gut.2011.241307. PMID 21508423.

[pmid25133039-29] 29.0 ^29.1 Badillo R, Francis D (2014). "Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease". World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 5 (3): 105–12. doi:10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105. PMC 4133436. PMID 25133039.

[pmid3728460-30] 30.0 ^30.1 Boyce NW, Holdsworth SR (1986). "Pulmonary manifestations of the clinical syndrome of acute glomerulonephritis and lung hemorrhage". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 8 (1): 31–6. PMID 3728460.

[pmid27496347-31] 31.0 ^31.1 Foster MH (2017). "Basement membranes and autoimmune diseases". Matrix Biol. 57-58: 149–168. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2016.07.008. PMC 5290253. PMID 27496347.

[pmid1739240-32] 32.0 ^32.1 Hoffman GS, Kerr GS, Leavitt RY, Hallahan CW, Lebovics RS, Travis WD, Rottem M, Fauci AS (1992). "Wegener granulomatosis: an analysis of 158 patients". Ann. Intern. Med. 116 (6): 488–98. PMID 1739240.

[pmid21374588-33] 33.0 ^33.1 Falk RJ, Gross WL, Guillevin L, Hoffman GS, Jayne DR, Jennette JC, Kallenberg CG, Luqmani R, Mahr AD, Matteson EL, Merkel PA, Specks U, Watts RA (2011). "Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's): an alternative name for Wegener's granulomatosis". Arthritis Rheum. 63 (4): 863–4. doi:10.1002/art.30286. PMID 21374588.

[pmid27378039-34] 34.0 ^34.1 Carmona EM, Kalra S, Ryu JH (2016). "Pulmonary Sarcoidosis: Diagnosis and Treatment". Mayo Clin. Proc. 91 (7): 946–54. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.03.004. PMID 27378039.

[pmid12803116-35] 35.0 ^35.1 Yanardağ H, Pamuk GE, Karayel T, Demirci S (2002). "Bone marrow involvement in sarcoidosis: an analysis of 50 bone marrow samples". Haematologia (Budap). 32 (4): 419–25. PMID 12803116.

[JennetteFalk1997-36] 36.0 ^36.1 Jennette, J. Charles; Falk, Ronald J. (1997). "Small-Vessel Vasculitis". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (21): 1512–1523. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711203372106. ISSN 0028-4793.

[pmid23330816-37] 37.0 ^37.1 Vaglio A, Buzio C, Zwerina J (2013). "Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg-Strauss): state of the art". Allergy. 68 (3): 261–73. doi:10.1111/all.12088. PMID 23330816.

[pmid6366453-38] 38.0 ^38.1 Lanham JG, Elkon KB, Pusey CD, Hughes GR (1984). "Systemic vasculitis with asthma and eosinophilia: a clinical approach to the Churg-Strauss syndrome". Medicine (Baltimore). 63 (2): 65–81. PMID 6366453.

[pmid11464324-39] Stroud RH, Friedman NR (2001). "An update on inflammatory disorders of the pediatric airway: epiglottitis, croup, and tracheitis". Am J Otolaryngol. 22 (4): 268–75. doi:10.1053/ajot.2001.24825. PMID 11464324.

[pmid9857318-40] Solomon P, Weisbrod M, Irish JC, Gullane PJ (1998). "Adult epiglottitis: the Toronto Hospital experience". J Otolaryngol. 27 (6): 332–6. PMID 9857318.

[Cherry2008-41] Cherry, James D. (2008). "Croup". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (4): 384–391. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp072022. ISSN 0028-4793.

[pmid3816065-42] Bellamy EA, Johnston ID, Wilson AG (1987). "The chest radiograph in whooping cough". Clin Radiol. 38 (1): 39–43. PMID 3816065.

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