Vesicoureteral reflux

Template:DiseaseDisorder infobox Template:Search infobox Steven C. Campbell, M.D., Ph.D.

Overview

Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is an abnormal movement of urine from the bladder into ureters or kidneys.

Urine normally travels from the kidneys via the ureters to the bladder. In vesicoureteral reflux the direction of urine flow is reversed (retrograde).

In the majority of cases, it occurs as a result of a primary maturation abnormality of the vesicoureteral junction or a short distal ureteric submucosal tunnel in the bladder that alters the function of the valve mechanism.

VUR may be an isolated anomaly or associated with other congenital anomalies such as posterior urethral valves or complete duplication of the urinary tract.

Symptoms

Prenatal hydronephrosis.
Abnormal widening of the ureter .
Urinary tract infection.
Acute pyelonephritis .
Symptoms such as painful urination or renal colic / flank pain are not symptoms associated with vesicoureteral reflux.
Newborns may be lethargic with failure to thrive, while infants and young children typically present with pyrexia, dysuria, frequent urination, malodorous urine and GIT symptoms, but only when urinary tract infection is present as the initial presentation of VUR.

Causes

Vesicoureteral reflux has two type ; primary and secondary

Primary VUR

Is due to incompetent or inadequate closure of the ureterovesical junction (UVJ).
Usually reflux is prevented during bladder contraction by completely compressing the intravesical ureter and sealing it with surrounding bladder muscle.
Failure of anti-reflux mechanism is due to shortening of the intravesical ureter.

Secondary VUR

Is due to abnormally high pressure in the bladder which cause failure of the closure of the ureterovesical junction during bladder contraction.
Secondary VUR is related with anatomic ( eg , posterior urethral valves) or
Functional bladder obstruction (eg , dysfunctional voiding and neurogenic bladder)

Prevalence

VUR is present in more than 10% of the population. In children without urinary tract infections 17.2-18.5% have VUR, whereas in those with urinary tract infections the incidence may be as high as 70%.

Age

Younger children are more prone to VUR because of the relative shortness of the submucosal ureters. This susceptibility decreases with age as the length of the ureters increases as the children grow. In children under the age of 1 year with a urinary tract infection, 70% will have VUR. This number decreases to 15% by the age of 12.

Sex

Although VUR is more common in males antenatally, in later life there is a definite female preponderance with 85% of cases being female.

International Classification of Vesicoureteral Reflux

Grade I – Reflux only fills the ureter without dilation.
Grade II – Reflux into the renal pelvis and calyces without dilatation
Grade III – Reflux fills and mildly dilates the ureter and the collecting system with mild blunting of the calyces.
Grade IV – Dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces with moderate ureteral tortuosity
Grade V – Gross dilatation of the ureter, pelvis and calyces; ureteral tortuosity; papillary impressions

Almost 85% of grade I & II cases of VUR will resolve spontaneously. Approximately 50% of grade III cases and a lower percentage of higher grades will also resolve spontaneously.

Diagnosis

The following procedures may be used to diagnose VUR:

Nuclear cystogram (RNC)
Fluoroscopic voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG)
Ultrasonic cystography
Abdominal ultrasound
if ureteral dilation is seen during abdominal ultrasound it suggest VUR
In children suspected of having VUR presenting with prenatal hydronephrosis or UTI

VCUG demonstrating bilateral Grade III vesicoureteral reflux
VCUG demonstrating bilateral Grade III vesicoureteral reflux
VCUG demonstrating bilateral Grade III vesicoureteral reflux

Treatment

Medical treatment is the preferred mode of management but surgical interventions may be necessary. Medical management is recommended in children with Grade I-III VUR as most cases will resolve spontaneously. A trial of medical treatment is indicated in patients with Grade IV VUR especially in younger patients or those with unilateral disease. Of the patients with Grade V VUR only infants are trialed on a medical approach before surgery is indicated, in older patients surgery is the only option.

Medical Treatment

Medical treatment entails low dose antibiotic prophylaxis until resolution of VUR occurs. Antibiotics are administered nightly at half the normal therapeutic dose. The specific antibiotics used differ with the age of the patient and include:

Amoxicillin or ampicillin - infants younger than 6 weeks
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole) - 6 weeks to 2 months

After 2 months the following antibiotics are suitable:

Urine cultures are performed 3 monthly to exclude breakthrough infection. Annual radiological investigations are likewise indicated. Good perineal hygiene, and timed and double voiding are also important aspects of medical treatment. Bladder dysfunction is treated with the administration of anticholinergics.

Surgical Management

A surgical approach is necessary in cases where a breakthrough infection results despite prophylaxis, or there is non-compliance with the prophylaxis. Similarly if the VUR is severe (Grade IV & V), there are pyelonephritic changes or congenital abnormalities. Other reasons necessitating surgical intervention are failure of renal growth, formation of new scars, renal deterioration and VUR in girls approaching puberty.

There are three types of surgical procedure available for the treatment of VUR: endoscopic (STING procedure); laparoscopic; and open procedures (Cohen procedure, Leadbetter-Politano procedure).

References

Atala. A, Keating. M, in Campbells Urology 8th ed. Pgs 2053-2094
Bailey RR: The relationship of VUR to UTI and chronic pyelonephritis-reflux nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 1973;1:132
Baker et al, Relation of age, sex and infection to reflux: Data indicating high spontaneous cure rate in paediatric patients. J Urol 1966;95:27
Duckett JW: VUR a "conservative analysis." Am J Kidney Dis 1983;3:139
Hodson CJ, Edwards D: Chronic Pyelonephritis and VUR. Clin Radiol 1960;11:219
King et al: Natural history of VUR: Outcome of a trial of non-operative therapy. Urol Clin North Am 1974;1:144
Ring E et al: Primary VUR in infants with a dilated fetal urinary tract. Eur J Pediatr 1993;152:523
Sargent MA: what is the normal prevalence of VUR? Pediatr Radiol 2000;9;587
Smellie JM, Normand ICS: The clinical features and significance of UTIs in children. Proc R Soc London 1966;59:415
Walker et al: Screening schoolchildren for urologic disease. Pediatrics 1977;60:239

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