Syncope classification
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Overview
Vasovagal (situational) syncope, one of the most common types, may occur in scary or embarrassing situations or during blood drawing, coughing, or urinating. Other types include postural syncope (caused by a changing in body posture), cardiac syncope (due to heart-related conditions), and neurological syncope (due to neurological conditions). There are many other causes of syncope including low blood sugar levels and lung disease such as emphysema and a pulmonary embolus. The cause of the fainting can be determined by a doctor using a complete history, physical, and various diagnostic tests. Syncope definition, according to European Task Force, can be catalogued as T-LOC (transient loss of consciousness) due to cerebral hypo perfusion, with a rapid onset, brief in duration, and complete spontaneous recovery. [1] Sometimes there can be prodromal period, in which the patient experiences lightheadedness, sweating, and nausea. Pre- syncope refers to the prodromal period without leading to T- LOC. [1]
Classification
Syncope is usually classified based on the underlying mechanisms leading to hypoperfusion. The table below is one of the suggested classification systems for syncope:[2]
| Neurally-mediated Syncope |
| Vasovagal |
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| Situational |
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| Carotid sinus syncope |
| Syncope due to Orthostatic Hypotension |
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| Autonomic failure |
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| Drug induced: |
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| Volume depletion |
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| Cardiovascular Syncope |
| Arrythmia |
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| Structural heart disease |
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| Other cardiovascular: |
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- Vasovagal Syncope
The vasovagal type can be considered in two forms:
- Isolated episodes of loss of consciousness, unheralded by any warning symptoms for more than a few moments. These tend to occur in the adolescent age group, and may be associated with fasting, exercise, abdominal straining or circumstances promoting vaso-dilatation (eg heat, alcohol). The subject is invariably upright. The tilt-table test, if performed, is generally negative.
- Recurrent syncope with complex associated symptoms. This is so-called Neurally Mediated Syncope (NMS). It is associated with any of the following: preceding or succeeding sleepiness, preceding visual disturbance ("spots before the eyes"), sweating, light-headedness. The subject is usually but not always upright. The tilt-table test, if performed, is generally positive.
A pattern of background factors contributes to the attacks. There is typically an unsuspected relatively low blood volume, for instance, from taking a low salt diet in the absence of any salt-retaining tendency. Heat causes vaso-dilatation and worsens the effect of the relatively insufficient blood volume. That sets the scene, but the next stage is the adrenergic response. If there is underlying fear or anxiety (e.g. social circumstances), or acute fear (e.g. acute threat, needle phobia), the vaso-motor centre demands an increased pumping action by the heart (flight or fight response). This is set in motion via the adrenergic (sympathetic) outflow from the brain but the heart is unable to meet the requirement because of the low blood volume, or decreased return. The high (ineffective) sympathetic activity is always modulated by vagal outflow, in these cases leading to excessive slowing of the heart rate. The abnormality lies in this excessive vagal response. The tilt-table test typically evokes the attack.
Much of this pathway was discovered in animal experiments by Bezold (Vienna) in the 1860s. In animals, it may represent a defense mechanism when confronted by danger ("playing possum"). This reflex occurs only in some people and may be similar to that described in animals.
The mechanism described here suggests that a practical way to prevent attacks would be, counter-intuitively, to block the adrenergic signal with a beta blocker. But, a simpler plan is to explain the mechanism, discuss causes of fear, and optimize salt as well as water intake.
Cardiovascular Syncope
Cardiovascular syncope includes arrhythmias and structural heart disease as the cause of the loss of consciousnesses. One of the most important aspects when syncope is diagnosed is to determine the cause, specially if it is cardiovascular. A rapid initial evaluation is needed to order the correct diagnostic tests and give the appropriate treatment urgent.
A pure cardiac arrhythmia is a serious matter that can appear as syncope but this is unusual. Severe narrowing of the aortic valve leading to syncope is included for completeness.
Fainting can also occur if pressure on the carotid artery in the neck triggers a vagal signal to the Vaso-Motor Centre, causing a vagal response reflex to slow the heart.
Syncope from Vertebro-basilar Arterial Disease
Arterial disease in the upper spinal cord, or lower brain, causes syncope if there is a reduction in blood supply, which may occur with extending the neck or after drugs to lower blood pressure.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Syncope. European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA). Heart Failure Association (HFA). Heart Rhythm Society (HRS). Moya A; et al. (2009). "Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of syncope (version 2009)". Eur Heart J. 30 (21): 2631–71. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehp298. PMC 3295536. PMID 19713422.
- ↑ Moya, A.; Sutton, R.; Ammirati, F.; Blanc, J.-J.; Brignole, M.; Dahm, J. B.; Deharo, J.-C.; Gajek, J.; Gjesdal, K.; Krahn, A.; Massin, M.; Pepi, M.; Pezawas, T.; Granell, R. R.; Sarasin, F.; Ungar, A.; van Dijk, J. G.; Walma, E. P.; Wieling, W.; Abe, H.; Benditt, D. G.; Decker, W. W.; Grubb, B. P.; Kaufmann, H.; Morillo, C.; Olshansky, B.; Parry, S. W.; Sheldon, R.; Shen, W. K.; Vahanian, A.; Auricchio, A.; Bax, J.; Ceconi, C.; Dean, V.; Filippatos, G.; Funck-Brentano, C.; Hobbs, R.; Kearney, P.; McDonagh, T.; McGregor, K.; Popescu, B. A.; Reiner, Z.; Sechtem, U.; Sirnes, P. A.; Tendera, M.; Vardas, P.; Widimsky, P.; Auricchio, A.; Acarturk, E.; Andreotti, F.; Asteggiano, R.; Bauersfeld, U.; Bellou, A.; Benetos, A.; Brandt, J.; Chung, M. K.; Cortelli, P.; Da Costa, A.; Extramiana, F.; Ferro, J.; Gorenek, B.; Hedman, A.; Hirsch, R.; Kaliska, G.; Kenny, R. A.; Kjeldsen, K. P.; Lampert, R.; Molgard, H.; Paju, R.; Puodziukynas, A.; Raviele, A.; Roman, P.; Scherer, M.; Schondorf, R.; Sicari, R.; Vanbrabant, P.; Wolpert, C.; Zamorano, J. L. (2009). "Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of syncope (version 2009): The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Syncope of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)". European Heart Journal. 30 (21): 2631–2671. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehp298. ISSN 0195-668X.